Atrial Fibrillation (AF) Quiz
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Irregular palpitations
Heart palpitations
Irregular heartbeat
Abnormal heart rhythms
My heart is pounding
I have heart arrhythmia
Irregular heart beat
Not seeing your symptoms? No worries!
What is Atrial Fibrillation (AF)?
Atrial fibrillation is a heart condition causing an irregular and often abnormally fast heart rate, which can result in blood clots in the heart. It increases the risk of stroke, heart failure, and other heart-related complications. Common causes include heart valve diseases and heart failure.
Typical Symptoms of Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
- Irregular heartbeat
- Pounding, rapid or fluttering heartbeat related to breathing
- Fatigue or low energy that is worse in the morning
- Pounding, rapid or fluttering heartbeat during exercise
- Fast heartbeat (more than 100 beats a minute)
- Irregular heart pounding
- Heart pounding
- Difficulty concentrating
Diagnostic Questions for Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
Your doctor may ask these questions to check for this disease:
- Have you been experiencing an irregular heartbeat?
- Are the palpitations related to your breathing?
- Do you experience fatigue or low energy that is worse in the morning?
- Do you get heart palpitations when you exercise?
- Have you been experiencing a fast heartbeat (more than 100 beats a minute)?
Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
Medications, such as beta blockers, are typically prescribed to control and restore a normal heart rhythm. The choice of medication depends on the cause of the atrial fibrillation. Medications to reduce stroke risk may also be prescribed.
Reviewed By:
Osler Jay Justo Guzon, MD (Cardiology)
Dr. Guzon graduated from the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine with a BLA and MD. He then completed his Internal Medicine Residency at St. Louis University before a fellowship in Cardiovascular Diseases at the University of Missouri-Columbia. He has since working as an invasive cardiologist with a particular interest in preventative medicine and cardiometabolic disease. Over the past several years, Dr. Guzon has served on the speaker bureaus of AstraZeneca, Lilly, Boehringer-Ingelheim, and Aralez.
Tatsuya Shiraishi, MD (Cardiology)
Dr. Shiraishi graduated from the Kyoto University School of Medicine. He worked as a cardiologist at Edogawa Hospital, and after joining Ubie, he became the Director of East Nihonbashi Internal Medicine Clinic.
Content updated on Apr 4, 2024
Following the Medical Content Editorial Policy
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Symptoms Related to Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
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FAQs
Q.
Heart Fluttering? Why Your Heart Is Beating Irregularly & Medically Approved AFib Steps
A.
Heart fluttering or an irregular, racing, or skipping heartbeat can be harmless, but it may signal atrial fibrillation, which raises stroke risk; medically approved steps include assessing stroke risk, using anticoagulants when indicated, controlling heart rate, and in select cases restoring normal rhythm plus lifestyle changes. There are several factors to consider. See details below on red flag symptoms that need urgent care, common triggers and risks, how AFib is diagnosed, and which next steps may be right for you.
References:
* Nattel S. Mechanisms of atrial fibrillation: a current perspective. Eur Heart J. 2020 Sep 7;41(34):3287-3296. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa440. PMID: 32777977.
* Virani SS, Alonso A, Benjamin EJ, Bittencourt MS, Callaway CW, Carson AP, Chamberlain AM, Dement J, Eaton CB, Hess JJ, Jencks KW, Khan SS, Lackland DT, Seeman T, Shulman EP, Stokes A, VanWagner LB, Wang Y, Yano Y, Hanley A; American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. 2023 ACC/AHA/ACCP/HRS Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Atrial Fibrillation: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2023 Oct 3;148(14):e185-e362. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000001169. Epub 2023 Sep 25. PMID: 37703351.
* Chung EH, Lim SH, Cha TJ, Hong YJ, Kim H. Pharmacological and Nonpharmacological Therapies for Atrial Fibrillation. J Clin Med. 2023 Jan 24;12(3):931. doi: 10.3390/jcm12030931. PMID: 36729377; PMCID: PMC9917387.
* Staerk L, Wang B, Hylek EM, Nielsen PB, Lip GYL, Overvad TF, Køber L, Torp-Pedersen C, Gislason GH. Risk Factors for Atrial Fibrillation: Current Understanding and Future Directions. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022 Jan 18;11(2):e023724. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.121.023724. Epub 2022 Jan 18. PMID: 35057041; PMCID: PMC8793077.
* Reiffel JA, Kowey PR. Atrial Fibrillation: An Overview. Am J Med. 2020 Sep;133(9):1004-1011.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.03.016. Epub 2020 Jul 2. PMID: 32623055.
Q.
Heart Flutter? Why Your Mitral Valve is Leaking & Medically Vetted Steps
A.
Heart flutter can be caused by a leaking mitral valve, which ranges from mild and monitor-only to serious, and may trigger atrial fibrillation that increases stroke risk; timely evaluation, symptom tracking, blood pressure control, imaging follow up, and in some cases repair or AF treatment are key. There are several factors to consider. For specific causes, diagnostic tests, follow up timelines, treatment choices, emergency red flags, and lifestyle steps that could change your next move, see the complete guidance below.
References:
* Nishimura RA, Vahanian A, Eleid MF, Mack MJ. Primary Mitral Regurgitation. N Engl J Med. 2018 Mar 22;378(12):1134-1143. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcp1615802. PMID: 29562149.
* Sannino A, Smith RL, Feldman T. Functional Mitral Regurgitation. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2019 Jul;12(7 Pt 2):1359-1375. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2018.06.027. PMID: 31272782.
* Otto CM, Nishimura RA, Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Erwin JP 3rd, Gentile M, Jneid H, Krieger EV, Mack M, McLeod E, O'Gara PT, Palmer C, Quan H, Yaffe MB. 2020 ACC/AHA Guideline for the Management of Patients With Valvular Heart Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2021 Feb 2;77(8):e1-e160. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.11.018. Epub 2020 Dec 17. PMID: 33334521.
* Enriquez-Sarano M, Tribouilloy C, Borg UL. Mitral Regurgitation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019 Jul 23;74(3):360-372. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.05.041. PMID: 31320193.
* Kanda S, Kaneko T, Takagi K, Minami T, Saito K, Miyairi S, Oshima H, Seki A, Tanaka H, Okamura H, Fukuda T, Hoshino K, Ito H, Koyama S, Ota S. Atrial Fibrillation and Its Relationship With Mitral Regurgitation. J Am Heart Assoc. 2023 Jul 18;12(14):e029340. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.122.029340. Epub 2023 Jul 11. PMID: 37427181.
Q.
Heart Racing? Why AF Happens and Medically Approved Next Steps
A.
Atrial fibrillation is a leading cause of a racing or irregular heartbeat, triggered by disorganized heart signals and often linked to high blood pressure, heart disease, aging, thyroid issues, alcohol, obesity and sleep apnea, diabetes, and stimulants; its biggest risk is stroke. There are several factors to consider. Medically approved next steps include getting an ECG for diagnosis, discussing blood thinners to lower stroke risk, choosing rate or rhythm control treatments, and addressing underlying conditions and lifestyle; see below for important details that can affect which steps are best for you.
References:
* Virani SA, et al. 2023 ACC/AHA/ACCP/HRS Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Atrial Fibrillation: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2023 Nov 28;82(22):e174-e366. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2023.04.017. Epub 2023 May 10. PMID: 37172778.
* Hindricks G, et al. 2020 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with the European Association of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Eur Heart J. 2020 Aug 21;41(32):373-498. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa612. PMID: 32860588.
* Nattel S, Dobrev D, Nattel J. Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Atrial Fibrillation: Evidence and Implications. Circ Res. 2023 Jun 9;132(12):1478-1498. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.123.322302. Epub 2023 Jun 8. PMID: 37290135.
* Nattel S, Dobrev D. The multidimensional roles of calcium in atrial fibrillation pathophysiology. Cardiovasc Res. 2022 Oct 26;118(16):3262-3277. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvac115. PMID: 35916053; PMCID: PMC9606821.
* Staerk L, Sherer JA, Ko D, Krijthe BP, Schnabel RB, Jørgensen ME, et al. Atrial fibrillation: epidemiology, medical management, and impact on global health. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2017 Jul;14(7):377-391. doi: 10.1038/nrcardio.2017.65. PMID: 28484121.
Q.
Heart Racing? Why A-Fib Happens and Medically Approved Next Steps
A.
Atrial fibrillation is a common cause of a racing or fluttering heart due to disorganized signals in the atria, which raises stroke risk and, if rapid for long periods, can lead to heart failure. There are several factors to consider, including high blood pressure, thyroid disease, sleep apnea, alcohol use, age, diabetes, obesity, and underlying heart problems. Medically approved next steps include prompt evaluation with an ECG, stroke prevention with blood thinners when indicated, heart rate control, and sometimes rhythm restoration with medications, cardioversion, or catheter ablation, plus targeted lifestyle changes; see the complete guidance below for how doctors choose among options and the urgent warning signs that require emergency care.
References:
* Dobrev D, Nattel S. Mechanisms of Atrial Fibrillation. Annu Rev Physiol. 2023 Feb 10;85:313-340. doi: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-032221-011211. Epub 2022 Nov 3. PMID: 36327339.
* Joglar JA, et al. 2023 ACC/AHA/ACCP/HRS Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Atrial Fibrillation: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2023 Sep 26;82(13):e1-e209. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2023.04.017. Epub 2023 Aug 1. PMID: 37620160.
* Li H, Zhang J, Sun F, Zheng R. Risk factors for atrial fibrillation: Update on the current knowledge and clinical implications. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022 Dec 12;9:1068897. doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.1068897. PMID: 36578709; PMCID: PMC9789325.
* Kirchhof P, Camm AJ, Goette A, et al. Advances in the treatment of atrial fibrillation. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2021 Dec;18(12):831-848. doi: 10.1038/s41569-021-00569-0. Epub 2021 Jul 26. PMID: 34312529.
* Nattel S, Dobrev D, Gabora E, et al. Atrial Fibrillation: A Global Perspective on Mechanisms and Management. Cardiovasc Res. 2020 Jun 1;116(7):1243-1262. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvaa017. PMID: 32060592.
Q.
Heart Out of Sync? Why Your Heart Needs a Pacemaker & Medically Approved Next Steps
A.
A pacemaker is used when your heart beats too slowly or unpredictably, causing symptoms like dizziness, fainting, fatigue, or shortness of breath, and it restores a safe, steady rhythm to protect blood flow and improve energy. There are several factors to consider that can change your next steps. See below for the causes that warrant a pacemaker, how doctors confirm the need, what the procedure and recovery involve, the risks and daily precautions, and exactly when to seek urgent care versus schedule an appointment.
References:
* Tiyyagura R, Singh SK, El-Sherif A. Permanent Pacemaker Implantation: An Update. Clin Exp Hypertens. 2018;40(6):525-530. doi: 10.1080/10641963.2017.1407238. Epub 2018 Jan 18. PMID: 30016259.
* Wong KK, Tan JFR. Bradycardia: A Review of the Current Evidence and Management. J Clin Med. 2021 Jul 21;10(14):3211. doi: 10.3390/jcm10143211. PMID: 34299839; PMCID: PMC8304918.
* Kusumoto FM, Schoenfeld MH, Wilkoff BL, et al. 2018 ACC/AHA/HRS Guideline on the Evaluation and Management of Patients With Bradycardia and Cardiac Conduction Delay: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2018 Aug 21;138(10):e128-e228. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000628. Epub 2018 Aug 20. PMID: 30132644.
* Park YH, Park JH. Long-term follow-up of cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs): a review. J Arrhythm. 2019 Jun;35(3):363-368. doi: 10.1002/joa3.12187. Epub 2019 Apr 12. PMID: 31338029; PMCID: PMC6630453.
* Chen T, Luo C, Deng Y. Recent advances in cardiac pacing technologies. J Cardiovasc Transl Res. 2022 Oct;15(5):849-866. doi: 10.1007/s12265-021-10200-y. Epub 2022 Jan 27. PMID: 35106606; PMCID: PMC8793288.
Q.
Heart Racing? Why Your Atrium is Misfiring & Vital Medical Next Steps
A.
A racing, pounding, or fluttering heartbeat often begins in the atrium from an arrhythmia like atrial fibrillation, which can cause an irregular pulse and raise stroke and heart failure risk but is common and treatable. Seek emergency care for chest pain, severe shortness of breath, fainting, or stroke symptoms; otherwise arrange prompt evaluation for tests such as an ECG and monitoring, and discuss stroke prevention, rate or rhythm control, and lifestyle changes. There are several factors to consider; see below to understand more.
References:
* Hindricks G, et al. 2023 ACC/AHA/HRS Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2023;148(19):e179-e286. PMID: 37722262.
* Nattel S, et al. Mechanisms of Atrial Fibrillation. Circ Res. 2021;129(1):73-95. PMID: 34161863.
* Katritsis DG, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Supraventricular Tachycardia: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(14):1656-1672. PMID: 32912443.
* Agarwal D, et al. Atrial Flutter: A Review. Am J Med. 2022;135(6):682-689. PMID: 35002164.
* Chung MK, et al. Lifestyle and Risk Factor Modification for Atrial Fibrillation: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2023;147(19):e866-e881. PMID: 37039097.
Q.
Diltiazem Side Effects? Why Your Heart is Reacting & Medically Approved Next Steps
A.
Common side effects of diltiazem include ankle or foot swelling, dizziness or lightheadedness, flushing, fatigue, nausea, constipation, and a slower pulse because it relaxes blood vessels and slows heart signals; red flags like fainting, worsening chest pain, very slow or irregular heartbeat, shortness of breath, or yellowing skin need urgent care. Do not stop it suddenly; track symptoms, check for interactions with beta blockers, digoxin, and some cholesterol or antiarrhythmic medicines, ask your clinician about dose or extended-release changes, and know that older adults or those with heart failure, liver disease, low blood pressure, or multiple heart meds need closer monitoring. There are several factors to consider; see below to understand more, including when to use an AFib symptom check and the exact, medically approved next steps.
References:
* Nandi, S., Pattanayak, C., Jena, U., Samal, P., Sethy, S. N., & Biswal, M. R. (2021). Drug-induced cardiotoxicity: from mechanistic insights to clinical management. *Cardiovascular Toxicology*, *21*, 687-703. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33945892/
* Isbister, G. K., & Calver, L. A. (2013). Toxicity of calcium channel blockers. *Clinical Toxicology*, *51*(7), 577-584. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23758440/
* Chowdhury, S. R., & Chow, M. J. (2018). Drug-induced bradycardia: a clinical perspective. *Current Hypertension Reports*, *20*(11), 93. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30284370/
* Katzung, B. G. (2015). Calcium channel blockers: Mechanisms of action and adverse effects. *Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology*, *117*(Suppl. 1), 60-64. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26601267/
* Shorb, J. S., & Al-Qadheeb, N. S. (2018). Adverse drug reactions in the elderly: A review of calcium channel blockers. *Drugs & Aging*, *35*(8), 661-671. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29969165/
Q.
Heart Still Racing? Why Your Heart Is Misfiring: Ablation & Medical Steps
A.
There are several factors to consider. A racing or irregular heartbeat can be harmless or a sign of an arrhythmia like atrial fibrillation; doctors confirm with ECG and monitoring, start with lifestyle changes and medications, and may recommend minimally invasive ablation when symptoms persist or drugs cause problems. See below to understand more about who needs urgent care, stroke risk and blood thinners, how effective ablation is by rhythm type, recovery expectations, and how to choose next steps with your clinician.
References:
* Andrade JG, Khaykin Y, Guerra PG, et al. A practical guide to cardiac ablation procedures. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2021 May;7(5):590-607. doi: 10.1016/j.jacep.2021.01.011. PMID: 33900989.
* Hindricks G, Potpara T, Dagres N, et al. 2020 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with the European Association of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS): The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of atrial fibrillation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Developed with the special contribution of the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA). Eur Heart J. 2020 Aug 21;41(32):373-498. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa612. PMID: 32895828.
* Katritsis DG, Josephson ME. Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Supraventricular Tachycardia. Circulation. 2015 Oct 6;132(14):1335-50. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.016318. PMID: 26438039.
* Zeppenfeld K, Tfelt-Hansen J, de Riva M, et al. 2022 ESC Guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: Developed by the Task Force for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) With the special contribution of the Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC). Eur Heart J. 2022 Oct 21;43(40):3997-4126. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehac262. PMID: 36006025.
* Nattel S, Burashnikov A, Dobrev D. Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Antiarrhythmic Drug Action and Interaction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022 Mar 15;79(10):1018-1033. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2022.01.002. PMID: 35272669.
Q.
Amiodarone Toxicity? The Reality & Medically Approved Next Steps
A.
Amiodarone toxicity is real but manageable: it can affect the lungs, thyroid, liver, eyes, skin, and nerves, so structured monitoring is essential and many people use it safely when followed closely. Medically approved next steps include not stopping it abruptly, contacting your doctor promptly for new symptoms, and seeking emergency care for severe breathing trouble, chest pain, fainting, or sudden confusion. There are several factors to consider; see below for symptom checklists, risk factors, the monitoring timetable your doctor should follow, and safer alternatives that may fit your situation.
References:
* Padda IS, Moinuddin Z, Padda A, Khan A, Singh S, Al-Abidi I, Mistry R, Das S, Shafi M, Haque Z. Amiodarone-induced toxicity: A review. Am Heart J. 2022 Nov;253:136-150. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2022.07.009. Epub 2022 Jul 22. PMID: 35878893.
* Singh S, Singh K, Ahmad A, Agrawal A, Alam MS. Amiodarone Toxicity. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022 Nov 1;11(21):e026900. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.122.026900. Epub 2022 Oct 24. PMID: 36278854.
* Salameh J, Al-Kindi SG, Shishehbor MH. Amiodarone toxicity - a contemporary review of a persistent clinical problem. Intern Emerg Med. 2022 Jun;17(4):1199-1207. doi: 10.1007/s11739-022-02949-x. Epub 2022 Jan 28. PMID: 35089370.
* Siddoway LA. Amiodarone toxicity revisited. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2021 Jan-Feb;64:55-66. doi: 10.1016/j.pcad.2020.08.006. Epub 2020 Aug 13. PMID: 32800885.
* Ahmed T, Patel V, Sarwar A, et al. Amiodarone Toxicity. [Updated 2023 Jul 17]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: NBK539827. PMID: 30969642.
Q.
Heart Fluttering? Why Your Heart Is in Atrial Fibrillation & Medical Next Steps
A.
Heart fluttering or an irregular, racing heartbeat is often atrial fibrillation, a common but treatable rhythm problem that can lower pumping efficiency and raise the risk of stroke and heart failure. Key next steps are ECG confirmation, a stroke risk check to decide on blood thinners, choosing rate or rhythm control treatments, and targeted lifestyle changes such as managing blood pressure, weight, sleep apnea, alcohol, and smoking. There are several factors and warning signs to consider, including chest pain, severe shortness of breath, fainting, or stroke symptoms that need urgent care; see below for details that can change which next steps are right for you.
References:
* Nattel S, Dobrev D. The multidimensional pathology of atrial fibrillation: mechanisms and implications for treatment. Circ Res. 2023 Mar 3;132(5):e101-e120. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.122.321689. Epub 2023 Feb 28. PMID: 36848074.
* Staerk L, et al. Atrial fibrillation in the 21st century: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2023 Apr;20(4):259-273. doi: 10.1038/s41569-022-00782-9. Epub 2022 Nov 22. PMID: 36414732.
* Hindricks G, et al. 2020 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with the European Association of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Eur Heart J. 2020 Aug 21;41(32):373-498. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa612. PMID: 32805201.
* Kotecha D, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for atrial fibrillation: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022 Dec 13;80(24):2303-2316. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2022.09.043. Epub 2022 Oct 19. PMID: 36270634.
* Chung MK, et al. Lifestyle and Risk Factor Modification for Prevention and Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020 Apr 14;141(15):e725-e752. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000742. Epub 2020 Mar 2. PMID: 32114815.
Q.
Heart Fluttering? Why Your Heart Is Out of Sync & Medically Approved Afib Steps
A.
Heart flutters can be harmless, but they can also signal atrial fibrillation, which raises stroke risk and needs timely evaluation. There are several factors to consider; see below to understand more, including symptoms, urgent warning signs, and what to do next. Medically approved steps cover ECG-based diagnosis, stroke risk scoring with possible blood thinners, rate control or rhythm control options like medicines, cardioversion, and ablation, plus treating drivers such as high blood pressure, sleep apnea, alcohol use, and excess weight.
References:
* Hindricks G, Vlachojannis G, Kotecha D, et al. 2023 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J. 2023 Sep 1;44(39):3947-4089. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehad654. PMID: 37622618.
* Nattel S, Dobrev D, Gammie J, et al. Mechanisms and management of atrial fibrillation: insights from new clinical and experimental data. Cardiovasc Res. 2020 Dec 1;116(14):e227-e244. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvaa288. PMID: 33175960; PMCID: PMC7704516.
* Pürerfellner H, Kirchhof P, Arendts G, et al. "Heart fluttering?" - The experience of patients with atrial fibrillation: an international survey. Heart Rhythm. 2022 May;19(5):715-722. doi: 10.1016/j.hrthm.2022.01.002. Epub 2022 Jan 7. PMID: 34999127.
* Staerk L, Kotecha D, Rienstra M, et al. Atrial fibrillation and stroke prevention: the past, present and future. Cardiovasc Res. 2022 Mar 1;118(3):645-661. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvab355. PMID: 34870423; PMCID: PMC8891008.
* Potpara TS, Lip GYH, Apostolakis S, et al. Current Trends in Diagnosis and Management of Atrial Fibrillation. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2022 Apr;36(2):331-344. doi: 10.1007/s10557-021-07204-6. Epub 2021 Apr 22. PMID: 33886029; PMCID: PMC8130930.
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