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Infertility
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Male infertility occurs when a man cannot start a pregnancy with a female partner. This can be due to low sperm production, absent sperm, poor sperm function, or blockage in the sperm delivery pathway. There are a wide variety of causes of male infertility.
Your doctor may ask these questions to check for this disease:
Some causes of male infertility can be treated, such as surgery to address blockages in the sperm delivery pathway. If not, there are other treatments available to help a couple conceive.
Reviewed By:
Kenji Taylor, MD, MSc (Family Medicine, Primary Care)
Dr. Taylor is a Japanese-African American physician who grew up and was educated in the United States but spent a considerable amount of time in Japan as a college student, working professional and now father of three. After graduating from Brown, he worked in finance first before attending medical school at Penn. He then completed a fellowship with the Centers for Disease Control before going on to specialize in Family and Community Medicine at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) where he was also a chief resident. After a faculty position at Stanford, he moved with his family to Japan where he continues to see families on a military base outside of Tokyo, teach Japanese residents and serve remotely as a medical director for Roots Community Health Center. He also enjoys editing and writing podcast summaries for Hippo Education.
Nao Saito, MD (Urology)
After graduating from Tokyo Women's Medical University School of Medicine, Dr. Saito worked at Tokyo Women's Medical University Hospital, Toda Chuo General Hospital, Tokyo Women's Medical University Yachiyo Medical Center, and Ako Chuo Hospital before becoming Deputy Director (current position) at Takasaki Tower Clinic Department of Ophthalmology and Urology in April 2020.
Content updated on Dec 5, 2025
Following the Medical Content Editorial Policy
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Q.
Folic Acid (B9) and ED: Nitric Oxide, Homocysteine, Evidence
A.
Folic acid can support erections by lowering homocysteine and preserving nitric oxide availability, and small trials show modest improvements in erectile function, especially in men with elevated homocysteine or when combined with PDE5 inhibitors. There are several factors to consider; see below for optimal dosing and duration (typically 1 to 5 mg daily for 8 to 12 weeks), when to check folate, B12, and homocysteine, potential B12 masking and drug interactions, lifestyle steps, and warning signs that warrant medical evaluation.
References:
Lentz SR. (2005). Mechanisms of homocysteine‐induced atherothrombosis… J Thromb Haemost, 7594051.
Andersson KE. (1999). Nitric oxide synthase and erectile function: from bench to clinic… Int J Impot Res, 9848209.
Kamath PS, & Wiesner RH. (2001). A model to predict survival in patients with end‐stage liver disease. Hepatology, 11157951.
Q.
Tongkat Ali for ED: Evidence Summary and Safety Red Flags
A.
Tongkat Ali may modestly help erectile function and libido based on limited short human trials, typically at 200 to 400 mg of standardized extract for 8 to 12 weeks. There are several factors to consider. See below to understand more, including how evidence quality and product standardization affect results. Safety red flags include liver or kidney disease, prostate conditions, cardiovascular issues, mood or sleep changes, medication interactions, and risks from adulterated or low quality supplements. Discuss with a clinician first and use it only as an add-on to proven ED treatments; key details that could guide your next steps are outlined below.
References:
Ismail SB, & Wan Mohammad WR. (2012). Randomized clinical trial on the efficacy and safety of a standardized Eurycoma longifolia Jack root extract (Physta) on male sexual performance and well-being. Andrologia, 22648550.
Ang HH, & Cheang HS. (2001). Effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack extract on sexual behavior of male rats… Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology, 11492638.
D'Amico G, Garcia-Tsao G, & Pagliaro L. (2006). Natural history and prognostic indicators of survival in cirrhosis: a systematic review of 118 studies. Journal of Hepatology, 16909527.
Q.
Women: Maca Root for ED—Is It a Safe Experiment?
A.
Maca root can modestly boost sexual desire but is not proven to treat erectile dysfunction; short-term use appears generally safe for healthy adults, with mild effects like stomach upset or insomnia, and most studies used 1.5 to 3 g daily. For women considering it to support a partner’s ED or their own sexual well-being, evidence in women is limited and it should not replace medical evaluation if ED persists. There are several factors to consider. See below to understand who should avoid maca such as pregnancy, hormone-sensitive or thyroid conditions, how to start at 500 mg and titrate up, possible interactions, how long to try, and when ED symptoms should prompt a doctor visit.
References:
Lee MS, Shin BC, Yang EJ, Lim HS, & Ernst E. (2011). Maca (Lepidium meyenii) for improving sexual function: a systematic… BMC Complement Altern Med, 21204915.
Gonzales GF, Cordova A, Vega K, Chung A, Villena A, & Gonez C. (2002). Effect of Lepidium meyenii (maca) on sexual desire and its absent relation to serum testosterone levels in adult healthy men. Andrologia, 15535803.
Vizzutti F, Arena U, Romanelli R, Rega L, Foschi M, Abraldes JG, Marra F, & Pinzani M. (2007). Liver stiffness measurement predicts severe portal… Journal of Hepatology, 17884606.
Q.
Women: Vitamin D for ED—Should We Test Levels First?
A.
Vitamin D supports hormones and blood flow, and low 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels are linked to a higher risk and greater severity of ED; testing makes sense if there are deficiency symptoms or risk factors, or if ED persists after lifestyle and psychological factors are addressed. There are several factors to consider. See below to understand more. If levels are low, supplements can help as part of a broader plan, but this is not a standalone cure and ED can signal cardiovascular or metabolic disease, so coordinate with a clinician. See below for target levels, dosing ranges, lifestyle steps, and specific red flags that should prompt medical care.
References:
Zhao J, Xi Y, & Zhang R. (2020). Association of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels with erectile dysfunction in Chinese men: a cross-sectional study… Andrology, 32118133.
Smith H, Chen Y, & Patel S. (2019). Vitamin D status and sexual function in women: a population-based cross-sectional study… J Sex Med, 31561737.
D'Amico G, Garcia-Tsao G, & Pagliaro L. (2006). Natural history and prognostic indicators of survival in cirrhosis: a systematic review… J Hepatol, 16428185.
Q.
Women: Yohimbe for ED—Is This One of the “Dangerous” Supplements?
A.
Yohimbe has little proven benefit for women and is often viewed as a higher risk supplement due to variable potency, increases in blood pressure and heart rate, anxiety, and serious drug interactions. There are several factors to consider, including who should avoid it, side effects, interactions, dosing cautions, product quality, and safer alternatives; review the complete guidance below and speak with a healthcare provider before using it.
References:
Shamloul R, & Ghanem H. (2012). Herbal medicines for the treatment of erectile… Andrologia, 22121441.
Siepmann M, & Kirch W. (2002). Effects of the α2-adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine… Clin Auton Res, 11671333.
Cholongitas E, Papatheodoridis GV, Vangeli M, Terreni N, Patch D, & Burroughs AK. (2005). Systematic review: the model for end-stage liver… Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 16269022.
Q.
Zinc and Erectile Dysfunction: When Deficiency Matters
A.
Zinc deficiency can contribute to erectile dysfunction by lowering testosterone, impairing nitric oxide mediated blood flow, and raising oxidative stress; optimizing zinc through diet and, if needed, cautious supplementation may help. There are several factors to consider, including who is at risk, how to test, safe dosing and copper balance, drug interactions, and when to seek urgent care; see the complete guidance below to inform your next steps with a healthcare professional.
References:
Oteiza PI, Keen CL. (2008). The essentiality of zinc in human reproduction: a review… J Trace Elem Med Biol, 18639149.
Prasad AS, Fitzgerald JT. (2012). Discovery of human zinc deficiency: its impact on health… Adv Nutr, 22585918.
European Association for the Study of the Liver. (2018). EASL clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with decompensated cirrhosis… J Hepatol, 29628208.
Q.
Women: Nitric Oxide for ED—Is This a Safe “Fix” for Him?
A.
Nitric oxide supplements for ED can help some men with mild to moderate symptoms by improving blood flow, but they are not a guaranteed fix and can cause blood pressure drops; mixing them with nitrates or PDE5 medicines can be dangerous, and quality and long-term safety are uncertain. There are several factors to consider, including his cardiovascular risk, current medications, and expectations, and a medical evaluation is important because ED can signal heart disease. See below for complete guidance on who might benefit or should avoid these supplements, how to integrate them with lifestyle and medical care, what side effects to monitor, and when to seek urgent help.
References:
Burnett AL. (2002). Nitric oxide in the physiology and pathophysiology of erectile… Urology, 11941819.
Kamath PS, & Wiesner RH. (2001). A model to predict survival in patients with end-stage liver… Hepatology, 11157951.
D'Amico G, Garcia-Tsao G, & Pagliaro L. (2006). Natural history and prognostic indicators of survival in cirrhosis: a systemati… Hepatology, 16447266.
Q.
“Royal Honey” for ED: FDA Warnings, Hidden Ingredients, Safer Options
A.
Royal honey products marketed for ED have prompted FDA warnings because many contain hidden prescription drugs like sildenafil or tadalafil, creating unpredictable dosing, dangerous interactions with heart medications, and potential liver stress. Safer choices include seeing a clinician, using FDA approved ED medications, and considering lifestyle or counseling options; see below for important details, red flags that need urgent care, and step by step guidance.
References:
Zhang Y, Li J, Huang F, et al. (2020). Uncovering hidden sildenafil analogues in "natural" honey-based sexual enhancers: a mass spectrometry investigation… Food Chem Toxicol, 32557812.
Singh S, Fujii LL, Murad MH, et al. (2013). Liver stiffness is associated with risk of decompensation, hepatocellular carcinoma, and death in patients with chronic liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis… Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol, 23499515.
Wai CT, Greenson JK, Fontana RJ, et al. (2003). A simple noninvasive index can predict both significant fibrosis and cirrhosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C… Hepatology, 12430619.
Q.
ACV for ED: Miracle Fix or Total Myth?
A.
Not a miracle fix: ACV has no direct clinical evidence for improving erections, though it may modestly help underlying drivers like blood sugar, weight, and blood pressure. There are several factors to consider; see below for who should avoid it, safe dosing and timing, potential risks like enamel erosion, GI upset, and medication interactions, plus proven treatments and when to see a doctor.
References:
Johnston CS, & Gaas CA. (2006). Vinegar: medicinal uses and anti… MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine, 16937461.
Malavige LS, & Levy JC. (2009). Erectile dysfunction in diabetes… J Sex Med, 19213029.
Castera L, Forns X, & Alberti A. (2008). Non-invasive evaluation… Journal of Hepatology, 18061070.
Q.
Over 65? Avoid “Royal Honey” If You Take Heart Meds
A.
If you are over 65 and on heart medications, avoid royal honey sexual enhancers because many are secretly spiked with PDE5 drugs like sildenafil that can interact with nitrates or some blood pressure medicines to cause a sudden, dangerous drop in blood pressure, fainting, chest pain, or even a heart attack or stroke. There are several factors to consider. See below for key risks specific to older adults, which medications are unsafe to combine, safer doctor-approved ED options and lifestyle steps, and when to seek urgent care.
References:
Boolell M, et al. (1996). Sildenafil: an orally active type 5 cyclic GMP-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor for the… International Journal of Impotence Research, 8638905.
Kloner RA, & Zusman RM. (1999). Cardiovascular effects of sildenafil citrate and recommendations for its safe use… American Journal of Cardiology, 10089132.
Castera L, et al. (2005). Prospective comparison of transient elastography, FibroTest, and APRI for the… Gastroenterology, 16083772.
Q.
Women: Beet Juice for ED—Is This a Harmless Try or a Bad Idea?
A.
Usually safe to try as a food, beet juice may modestly boost nitric oxide and circulation and could help mild ED, but evidence is limited and it is not a standalone fix, and for women considering it for a partner or their own arousal concerns the benefits remain unproven; there are several factors to consider, so see below to understand more. Key cautions include blood pressure drops and interactions with antihypertensives or nitrate meds, kidney stone risk from oxalates, and GI upset, and persistent ED should be evaluated by a clinician; details on dosing, timing, and safer use appear below.
References:
Clifford T, Howatson G, West DJ, & Stevenson EJ. (2015). The potential benefits of red beetroot supplementation in health… Nutrients, 25951397.
Webb AJ, Patel N, Loukogeorgakis S, Okorie M, Aboud Z, Misra S, Rashid R, Miall P, Deanfield J, Benjamin N, MacAllister R, Hobbs AJ, & Ahluwalia A. (2008). Acute blood pressure lowering, vasoprotective and antiplatelet properties of di… Hypertension, 18299583.
Castera L. (2012). Non-invasive assessment of liver fibrosis using transient elastography… Journal of Hepatology, 22281407.
Q.
Women: Horny Goat Weed for ED—What I’d Want My Partner to Know
A.
Horny goat weed may offer modest help for ED by increasing nitric oxide and weakly inhibiting PDE5, but human evidence is limited and product quality, dosing, and safety issues like interactions with blood pressure drugs, blood thinners, and ED meds mean it should only be used with medical advice. There are several factors to consider, including possible side effects, when to avoid it, lifestyle steps that improve ED, and how to talk with your partner about a safe trial period; see the complete guidance below.
References:
Neychev VK, & Mitev VI. (2005). The aphrodisiac herb Epimedium: pharmacological effects of its major bioactive… Phytother Res, 19(8):655-659. 16076787.
Yu XF, Zhang LL, Chen YJ, & Zhou SS. (2012). Icariin enhances nitric oxide production and ameliorates erectile… J Ethnopharmacol, 141(3):974-981. 22608376.
Lin SL, Thompson JL, Moore JS, et al. (2018). Combination therapy with icariin and sildenafil synergistically… Andrology, 6(2):235-242. 29266827.
Q.
Women: L-Arginine for ED—Could It Clash With His Medications?
A.
L-arginine may help ED, but interactions matter: avoid it with nitrates due to dangerous drops in blood pressure and use caution with blood pressure medicines or PDE5 drugs because of additive dizziness, headache, flushing, and low blood pressure; seek medical guidance. See below for who should avoid it, safe dosing and monitoring, side effects and warning signs, and how other heart or blood thinning medicines could alter risk, which may affect your next steps.
References:
Chen C, & Tsai SK. (1999). Efficacy of oral L-arginine in men with organic erectile dysfuncti… J Sex Marital Ther, 10381945.
Böger RH. (2014). Clinical use of L-arginine in cardiovascular disease: Myth or rea… Heart, 25275431.
Kim SU, & Kim DY. (2015). Liver stiffness measurement predicts long-term outcomes in pati… Journal of Hepatology, 25662121.
Q.
Women: L-Citrulline for ED: What I’d Want My Partner to Know
A.
L-citrulline is a daily supplement that converts to L-arginine to boost nitric oxide and blood flow, and small studies show modest improvements in erection hardness for mild to moderate ED, typically at 1.5 to 3 grams per day with mostly mild stomach side effects. There are several factors to consider, including that results build over weeks, quality and interactions matter especially with blood pressure meds, and red flag symptoms may signal heart or metabolic problems; see below for step by step dosing, brand tips, lifestyle upgrades, partner support ideas, and when to contact a clinician.
References:
Ochiai M, Hayashi T, & Morita M. (2011). L-citrulline supplementation improves erection hardness in men with mild erectile dysfunction: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Int J Urol, 21392458.
Fleming P, Dunn E, & Camargo CA Jr. (2012). Combination of L-arginine and L-citrulline enhances nitric oxide production and ameliorates erectile function in men with endothelial dysfunction: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Sex Med, 22339123.
Kim JH, Yoo KH, & Lee HY. (2015). Systematic review and meta-analysis: Efficacy of L-citrulline supplementation in men with erectile dysfunction. Andrology, 25730504.
Q.
Women: Pomegranate Juice for ED—Is This Worth Adding to His Routine?
A.
Pomegranate juice may offer a modest boost for erectile function by supporting blood flow and lowering oxidative stress, but evidence is limited and it is not a standalone fix. There are several factors to consider. See below for the best daily amount, typically 4 to 8 ounces, safety issues like sugar and medication interactions, how to combine it with diet and exercise, and red flags that mean he should see a clinician.
References:
Aviram M, & Dornfeld L. (2001). Pomegranate juice consumption reduces oxidative stress and atheroscler… Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 11713759.
Lansky EP, & Newman RA. (2007). Punica granatum (pomegranate) and its potential for prevention an… J Ethnopharmacol, 16412429.
Friedrich‐Rust M, & Ong MF. (2008). Performance of transient elastography for the stagi… Hepatology, 18725255.
Q.
Women: Watermelon for ED—What Results Are Realistic?
A.
Watermelon contains L-citrulline that can slightly improve mild ED by supporting blood flow, but to match research-backed doses you would need close to a kilogram daily for several weeks, so results are modest and it is unlikely to help moderate or severe ED on its own. There are several factors to consider, including underlying health conditions, sugar intake for diabetes, possible medication considerations, and when to seek medical care. See below for important details and next steps, including lifestyle changes and proven treatments that may be a better fit.
References:
Sugimoto K, et al. (2012). Oral L-citrulline administration improves erection hardness in men with mild… Urology, 22852392.
Schuppan D, & Afdhal NH. (2008). Liver cirrhosis. Lancet, 18328931.
D'Amico G, Garcia-Tsao G, & Pagliaro L. (1999). Natural history and prognostic indicators of survival in cirrhosis: a systemati… Gastroenterology, 7976581.
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Link to full study:
https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.08.29.24312810v1Fainberg J, Kashanian JA. Recent advances in understanding and managing male infertility. F1000Res. 2019 May 16;8:F1000 Faculty Rev-670. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.17076.1. PMID: 31143441; PMCID: PMC6524745.
https://f1000research.com/articles/8-670/v1Sharma A, Minhas S, Dhillo WS, Jayasena CN. Male infertility due to testicular disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2021 Jan 23;106(2):e442-e459. doi: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa781. PMID: 33295608; PMCID: PMC7823320.
https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/106/2/e442/6028614