Brain Fog
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Try one of these related symptoms.
Foggy head/brain
My brain is not processing ideas correctly
Unconsciousness
About the Symptom
A disorder of consciousness, also known as "impaired consciousness", is when a person's ability to be awake and aware is impaired. After brain injury, a patient may recover consciousness completely or may not recover completely. If the patient does not recover completely and has problems with being awake and aware, this is considered a "disorder of consciousness".
When to See a Doctor
Seek professional care if you experience any of the following symptoms
- Brain not functioning / Brain fog
Possible Causes
Generally, Brain fog can be related to:
- Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis involves widespread inflammation of the brain and spinal cord, resulting in damage to nerve fibers and their protective linings. It is a result of inflammation that occurs after after an infection or immunization. While it can affect anyone it is more common in children.
- Pineal Tumor
Pineal gland tumors are rare and begin in the pineal gland located in the brain. They can be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous) and may be slow-growing or aggressive. The exact cause is unknown and can affect anyone, but they are more common in children and young adults.
Related Serious Diseases
Sometimes, Brain fog may be related to these serious diseases:
- Encephalitis / Encephalopathy
Encephalitis and encephalopathy are brain conditions that can result in permanent damage. Encephalitis refers to brain inflammation, while encephalopathy is a broad term for any brain disease or disorder. Several causes can lead to these conditions, including infections, trauma, metabolic problems, drugs, and lack of oxygen to the brain.
- Acute Epidural Hematoma
- Hepatic Encephalopathy
- Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
- Wernicke Encephalopathy
- Meningitis
- Infective Endocarditis
- Acute Pericarditis
Doctor's Diagnostic Questions
Your doctor may ask these questions to check for this symptom:
- Are you experiencing difficulty thinking clearly?
- When did you first start experiencing difficulty thinking clearly?
- Which statement best describes your difficulty thinking clearly?
- How is your difficulty thinking clearly now?
Reviewed By:
Bret Mobley, MD, MS (Neuropathology)
Dr. Mobley graduated from the University of Michigan Medical School, completing a masters degree in neuroscience between his second and third years of medical school. He trained as a resident in pathology at Stanford University Hospital before joining the faculty of Vanderbilt University Medical Center in Nashville Tennessee in 2010. He was promoted to Associate Professor in 2018 and to Neuropathology Division Director in 2020.
Shohei Harase, MD (Neurology)
Dr. Harase spent his junior and senior high school years in Finland and the U.S. After graduating from the University of Washington (Bachelor of Science, Molecular and Cellular Biology), he worked for Apple Japan Inc. before entering the University of the Ryukyus School of Medicine. He completed his residency at Okinawa Prefectural Chubu Hospital, where he received the Best Resident Award in 2016 and 2017. In 2021, he joined the Department of Cerebrovascular Medicine at the National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, specializing in hyperacute stroke.
Yu Shirai, MD (Psychiatry)
Dr. Shirai works at the Yotsuya Yui Clinic for mental health treatment for English and Portuguese-speaking patients. He treats a wide range of patients from neurodevelopmental disorders to dementia in children and participates in knowledge sharing through the Diversity Clinic.
Content updated on Feb 6, 2025
Following the Medical Content Editorial Policy
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FAQs
Q.
At what age does menopause-related brain fog typically begin?
A.
Menopause-related brain fog often begins during perimenopause, typically when women are in their mid-40s to early 50s.
References:
Conde DM, Verdade RC, Valadares ALR, Mella LFB, Pedro AO, Costa-Paiva L. Menopause and cognitive impairment: A narrative review of current knowledge. World J Psychiatry. 2021 Aug 19;11(8):412-428. doi: 10.5498/wjp.v11.i8.412. PMID: 34513605; PMCID: PMC8394691.
Maki PM, Jaff NG. Menopause and brain fog: how to counsel and treat midlife women. Menopause. 2024 Jul 1;31(7):647-649. doi: 10.1097/GME.0000000000002382. Epub 2024 Jun 17. PMID: 38888619.
Metcalf CA, Duffy KA, Page CE, Novick AM. Cognitive Problems in Perimenopause: A Review of Recent Evidence. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2023 Oct;25(10):501-511. doi: 10.1007/s11920-023-01447-3. Epub 2023 Sep 27. PMID: 37755656; PMCID: PMC10842974.
Q.
Can ADHD contribute to the experience of brain fog?
A.
Yes, ADHD can make you feel like you're in a fog because people with ADHD often have trouble keeping their focus, which can feel like a cloudy mind.
References:
Bozhilova NS, Michelini G, Kuntsi J, Asherson P. Mind wandering perspective on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2018 Sep;92:464-476. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.07.010. Epub 2018 Jul 20. PMID: 30036553; PMCID: PMC6525148.
Bozhilova N, Cooper R, Kuntsi J, Asherson P, Michelini G. Electrophysiological correlates of spontaneous mind wandering in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Behav Brain Res. 2020 Aug 5;391:112632. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112632. Epub 2020 Apr 30. PMID: 32361038; PMCID: PMC7303944.
Sonuga-Barke EJS, Becker SP, Bölte S, Castellanos FX, Franke B, Newcorn JH, Nigg JT, Rohde LA, Simonoff E. Annual Research Review: Perspectives on progress in ADHD science - from characterization to cause. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2023 Apr;64(4):506-532. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.13696. Epub 2022 Oct 11. PMID: 36220605; PMCID: PMC10023337.
Q.
How are brain fog and fatigue related?
A.
Brain fog (feeling mentally slow or confused) and fatigue (feeling very tired) often happen at the same time and can share similar triggers. Both can be influenced by factors like poor sleep, diet, mood, and even infections like COVID-19.
References:
McWhirter L, Smyth H, Hoeritzauer I, Couturier A, Stone J, Carson AJ. What is brain fog? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2023 Apr;94(4):321-325. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2022-329683. Epub 2022 Dec 6. PMID: 36600580.
Altinsoy C, Dikmen D. How Are Brain Fog Symptoms Related to Diet, Sleep, Mood and Gastrointestinal Health? A Cross-Sectional Study. Medicina (Kaunas). 2025 Feb 15;61(2):344. doi: 10.3390/medicina61020344. PMID: 40005460; PMCID: PMC11857395.
Ortelli P, Ferrazzoli D, Sebastianelli L, Maestri R, Dezi S, Spampinato D, Saltuari L, Alibardi A, Kofler M, Quartarone A, Koch G, Oliviero A, Versace V. Fatigue and “brain fog” in the aftermath of mild COVID-19: A neuropsychological and TMS study. J Neurol Sci. 2021 Oct;429:119854. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2021.119854. Epub 2021 Oct 8. PMCID: PMC8498602.
Q.
How are foggy brain and headaches linked?
A.
Foggy brain (trouble thinking clearly) and headaches may appear together because they can share similar causes in the brain, such as inflammation, after an illness like COVID-19.
References:
Alim-Marvasti A, Ciocca M, Kuleindiren N, Lin A, Selim H, Mahmud M. Subjective brain fog: a four-dimensional characterization in 25,796 participants. Front Hum Neurosci. 2024 Jun 6;18:1409250. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1409250. PMID: 38911226; PMCID: PMC11191638.
Taskiran-Sag A, Eroglu E, Ozulken K, Canlar S, Poyraz BM, Sekerlisoy MB, Mumcuoglu T. Headache and cognitive disturbance correlate with ganglion cell layer thickness in patients who recovered from COVID-19. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2022 Jun;217:107263. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2022.107263. Epub 2022 Apr 26. PMID: 35525105; PMCID: PMC9040445.
Di Stadio A, Brenner MJ, De Luca P, Albanese M, D'Ascanio L, Ralli M, Roccamatisi D, Cingolani C, Vitelli F, Camaioni A, Di Girolamo S, Bernitsas E. Olfactory Dysfunction, Headache, and Mental Clouding in Adults with Long-COVID-19: What Is the Link between Cognition and Olfaction? A Cross-Sectional Study. Brain Sci. 2022 Jan 24;12(2):154. doi: 10.3390/brainsci12020154. PMID: 35203918; PMCID: PMC8870047.
Q.
How can I improve my brain's ability to process information?
A.
Boost your brain’s information processing by getting regular exercise, challenging your mind, and taking care of your overall health.
References:
Dresler M, Sandberg A, Bublitz C, Ohla K, Trenado C, Mroczko-Wąsowicz A, Kühn S, Repantis D. Hacking the Brain: Dimensions of Cognitive Enhancement. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2019 Mar 20;10(3):1137-1148. doi: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00571. Epub 2019 Jan 2. PMID: 30550256; PMCID: PMC6429408.
Gomez-Pinilla F, Hillman C. The influence of exercise on cognitive abilities. Compr Physiol. 2013 Jan;3(1):403-28. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c110063. PMID: 23720292; PMCID: PMC3951958.
Curlik DM 2nd, Shors TJ. Training your brain: Do mental and physical (MAP) training enhance cognition through the process of neurogenesis in the hippocampus? Neuropharmacology. 2013 Jan;64(1):506-14. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.07.027. Epub 2012 Aug 5. PMID: 22898496; PMCID: PMC3445739.
Q.
How can menstrual cycles lead to brain fog?
A.
Changes in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle can affect the brain, leading to a feeling of brain fog. This means it might be harder to concentrate or think clearly during certain parts of the cycle.
References:
Albert K, Pruessner J, Newhouse P. Estradiol levels modulate brain activity and negative responses to psychosocial stress across the menstrual cycle. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2015 Sep;59:14-24. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.04.022. Epub 2015 May 7. PMID: 26123902; PMCID: PMC4492530.
Sacher J, Okon-Singer H, Villringer A. Evidence from neuroimaging for the role of the menstrual cycle in the interplay of emotion and cognition. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013 Jul 24;7:374. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00374. PMID: 23898247; PMCID: PMC3721046.
Stiernman L, Dubol M, Comasco E, Sundström-Poromaa I, Boraxbekk CJ, Johansson M, Bixo M. Emotion-induced brain activation across the menstrual cycle in individuals with premenstrual dysphoric disorder and associations to serum levels of progesterone-derived neurosteroids. Transl Psychiatry. 2023 Apr 14;13(1):124. doi: 10.1038/s41398-023-02424-3. PMID: 37055419; PMCID: PMC10101953.
Q.
How do people typically describe the sensation of brain fog?
A.
People with brain fog often say it feels like their thoughts are cloudy, slow, or fuzzy. They may have trouble focusing, remembering things, or feeling mentally sharp.
References:
Aghajani Mir M. Brain Fog: a Narrative Review of the Most Common Mysterious Cognitive Disorder in COVID-19. Mol Neurobiol. 2024 Dec;61(12):9915-9926. doi: 10.1007/s12035-023-03715-y. Epub 2023 Oct 24. PMID: 37874482.
Sia AL, Neo JE, Jen-Wei Tan B, Tan EK. "Brain fog" and COVID-19. Am J Med Sci. 2023 May;365(5):472-474. doi: 10.1016/j.amjms.2023.01.003. Epub 2023 Jan 9. PMID: 36632867; PMCID: PMC9827745
McWhirter L, Smyth H, Hoeritzauer I, Couturier A, Stone J, Carson AJ. What is brain fog? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2023 Apr;94(4):321-325. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2022-329683. Epub 2022 Dec 6. PMID: 36600580.
Q.
How does menopause contribute to the development of brain fog?
A.
Menopause can lead to brain fog because changes in hormones, especially estrogen, affect brain functions like memory and clear thinking. Other factors like sleep issues and mood swings during menopause may also add to feeling mentally cloudy.
References:
Maki PM, Jaff NG. Menopause and brain fog: how to counsel and treat midlife women. Menopause. 2024 Jul 1;31(7):647-649. doi: 10.1097/GME.0000000000002382. Epub 2024 Jun 17. PMID: 38888619.
Russell JK, Jones CK, Newhouse PA. The Role of Estrogen in Brain and Cognitive Aging. Neurotherapeutics. 2019 Jul;16(3):649-665. doi: 10.1007/s13311-019-00766-9. PMID: 31364065; PMCID: PMC6694379.
Gava G, Orsili I, Alvisi S, Mancini I, Seracchioli R, Meriggiola MC. Cognition, Mood and Sleep in Menopausal Transition: The Role of Menopause Hormone Therapy. Medicina (Kaunas). 2019 Oct 1;55(10):668. doi: 10.3390/medicina55100668. PMID: 31581598; PMCID: PMC6843314.
Q.
How long after recovering from COVID-19 does brain fog usually appear?
A.
Brain fog from COVID-19 can start a few weeks after recovery, but the timing can vary a lot between people.
References:
Nouraeinejad A. Brain fog as a Long-term Sequela of COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med. 2023;5(1):9. doi: 10.1007/s42399-022-01352-5. Epub 2022 Nov 24. PMID: 36466122; PMCID: PMC9685075.
Fernández-de-Las-Peñas C, Cancela-Cilleruelo I, Rodríguez-Jiménez J, Arias-Navalón JA, Martín-Guerrero JD, Pellicer-Valero OJ, Arendt-Nielsen L, Cigarán-Méndez M. Trajectory of post-COVID brain fog, memory loss, and concentration loss in previously hospitalized COVID-19 survivors: the LONG-COVID-EXP multicenter study. Front Hum Neurosci. 2023 Nov 9;17:1259660. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1259660. PMID: 38021227; PMCID: PMC10665893.
Hayashi T, Iwata M. Spontaneous recovery from post-COVID-19 brain fog. PCN Rep. 2024 Jan 24;3(1):e169. doi: 10.1002/pcn5.169. PMID: 38868481; PMCID: PMC11114291.
Q.
How long can brain fog last in individuals with long COVID?
A.
Brain fog from long COVID can last from several weeks to many months, and it can vary a lot from one person to another.
References:
Asadi-Pooya AA, Akbari A, Emami A, Lotfi M, Rostamihosseinkhani M, Nemati H, Barzegar Z, Kabiri M, Zeraatpisheh Z, Farjoud-Kouhanjani M, Jafari A, Sasannia S, Ashrafi S, Nazeri M, Nasiri S, Shahisavandi M. Long COVID syndrome-associated brain fog. J Med Virol. 2022 Mar;94(3):979-984. doi: 10.1002/jmv.27404. Epub 2021 Oct 24. PMID: 34672377; PMCID: PMC8662118.
Shigematsu L, Kimura R, Terai H, Mimura Y, Ito D, Bun S, Namkoong H, Asakura T, Chubachi S, Masaki K, Ohgino K, Miyata J, Kawada I, Ishii M, Takemura R, Ueda S, Yoshiyama T, Kokuto H, Kusumoto T, Oashi A, Miyawaki M, Saito F, Tani T, Ishioka K, Takahashi S, Nakamura M, Sato Y, Fukunaga K. Social impact of brain fog and analysis of risk factors: Long COVID in Japanese population. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2024 Aug;11(8):2188-2200. doi: 10.1002/acn3.52139. Epub 2024 Jul 4. PMID: 38961833; PMCID: PMC11330230.
Sfera A, Rahman L, Zapata-Martín Del Campo CM, Kozlakidis Z. Long COVID as a Tauopathy: Of "Brain Fog" and "Fusogen Storms". Int J Mol Sci. 2023 Aug 10;24(16):12648. doi: 10.3390/ijms241612648. PMID: 37628830; PMCID: PMC10454863.
Q.
How prevalent is brain fog among COVID-19 survivors?
A.
Research shows that brain fog is a common problem for people after COVID-19, with studies reporting that a good number of survivors experience issues with memory and concentration.
References:
Nouraeinejad A. Brain fog as a Long-term Sequela of COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med. 2023;5(1):9. doi: 10.1007/s42399-022-01352-5. Epub 2022 Nov 24. PMID: 36466122; PMCID: PMC9685075.
Asadi-Pooya AA, Akbari A, Emami A, Lotfi M, Rostamihosseinkhani M, Nemati H, Barzegar Z, Kabiri M, Zeraatpisheh Z, Farjoud-Kouhanjani M, Jafari A, Sasannia S, Ashrafi S, Nazeri M, Nasiri S, Shahisavandi M. Long COVID syndrome-associated brain fog. J Med Virol. 2022 Mar;94(3):979-984. doi: 10.1002/jmv.27404. Epub 2021 Oct 24. PMID: 34672377; PMCID: PMC8662118.
Fernández-de-Las-Peñas C, Cancela-Cilleruelo I, Rodríguez-Jiménez J, Arias-Navalón JA, Martín-Guerrero JD, Pellicer-Valero OJ, Arendt-Nielsen L, Cigarán-Méndez M. Trajectory of post-COVID brain fog, memory loss, and concentration loss in previously hospitalized COVID-19 survivors: the LONG-COVID-EXP multicenter study. Front Hum Neurosci. 2023 Nov 9;17:1259660. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1259660. PMID: 38021227; PMCID: PMC10665893.
Q.
Is there a connection between brain fog and head pressure?
A.
Some studies suggest that brain fog (trouble thinking clearly) and head pressure (often described as headache) might be connected, especially in people recovering from illnesses like COVID-19 and other conditions with shared symptoms.
References:
Taskiran-Sag A, Eroglu E, Ozulken K, Canlar S, Poyraz BM, Sekerlisoy MB, Mumcuoglu T. Headache and cognitive disturbance correlate with ganglion cell layer thickness in patients who recovered from COVID-19. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2022 Jun;217:107263. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2022.107263. Epub 2022 Apr 26. PMID: 35525105; PMCID: PMC9040445.
Di Stadio A, Brenner MJ, De Luca P, Albanese M, D'Ascanio L, Ralli M, Roccamatisi D, Cingolani C, Vitelli F, Camaioni A, Di Girolamo S, Bernitsas E. Olfactory Dysfunction, Headache, and Mental Clouding in Adults with Long-COVID-19: What Is the Link between Cognition and Olfaction? A Cross-Sectional Study. Brain Sci. 2022 Jan 24;12(2):154. doi: 10.3390/brainsci12020154. PMID: 35203918; PMCID: PMC8870047.
Hulens M, Rasschaert R, Vansant G, Stalmans I, Bruyninckx F, Dankaerts W. The link between idiopathic intracranial hypertension, fibromyalgia, and chronic fatigue syndrome: exploration of a shared pathophysiology. J Pain Res. 2018 Dec 10;11:3129-3140. doi: 10.2147/JPR.S186878. PMID: 30573989; PMCID: PMC6292399.
Q.
Is there a known cure for brain fog?
A.
There isn't one known cure for brain fog, but supportive care and medical therapy depending on the cause can help lessen the symptoms.
References:
Kverno K. Brain Fog: A Bit of Clarity Regarding Etiology, Prognosis, and Treatment. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 2021 Nov;59(11):9-13. doi: 10.3928/02793695-20211013-01. Epub 2021 Nov 1. PMID: 34714198.
Ocon AJ. Caught in the thickness of brain fog: exploring the cognitive symptoms of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Front Physiol. 2013 Apr 5;4:63. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2013.00063. PMID: 23576989; PMCID: PMC3617392.
Marino N, Bedeschi M, Vaccari ME, Cambiaghi M, Tesei A. Glitches in the brain: the dangerous relationship between radiotherapy and brain fog. Front Cell Neurosci. 2024 Mar 7;18:1328361. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2024.1328361. PMID: 38515789; PMCID: PMC10956129.
Q.
Is there a method to instantly clear brain fog?
A.
There is currently no known way to instantly clear brain fog. Most methods take time and work gradually to help reduce symptoms.
References:
Alim-Marvasti A, Ciocca M, Kuleindiren N, Lin A, Selim H, Mahmud M. Subjective brain fog: a four-dimensional characterization in 25,796 participants. Front Hum Neurosci. 2024 Jun 6;18:1409250. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1409250. PMID: 38911226; PMCID: PMC11191638.
Kverno K. Brain Fog: A Bit of Clarity Regarding Etiology, Prognosis, and Treatment. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 2021 Nov;59(11):9-13. doi: 10.3928/02793695-20211013-01. Epub 2021 Nov 1. PMID: 34714198.
Masuko T, Sasai-Masuko H. Efficacy of Original Neurofeedback Treatment Method for Brain Fog From COVID-19: A Case Report. Cureus. 2024 Mar 20;16(3):e56519. doi: 10.7759/cureus.56519. PMID: 38646408; PMCID: PMC11026996.
Q.
Is there a specific test to diagnose brain fog?
A.
There isn’t one single test that diagnoses brain fog; instead, various tools and scales help measure its symptoms and effects.
References:
Elliott TR, Hsiao YY, Randolph K, Urban RJ, Sheffield-Moore M, Pyles RB, Masel BE, Wexler T, Wright TJ. Efficient assessment of brain fog and fatigue: Development of the Fatigue and Altered Cognition Scale (FACs). PLoS One. 2023 Dec 11;18(12):e0295593. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0295593. PMID: 38079429; PMCID: PMC10712873.
Lynch S, Ferrando SJ, Dornbush R, Shahar S, Smiley A, Klepacz L. Screening for brain fog: Is the montreal cognitive assessment an effective screening tool for neurocognitive complaints post-COVID-19? Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2022 Sep-Oct;78:80-86. doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2022.07.013. Epub 2022 Jul 30. PMID: 35930974; PMCID: PMC9359801.
Knowles SR, Apputhurai P, Tye-Din JA. Development and validation of a brain fog scale for coeliac disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2024 May;59(10):1260-1270. doi: 10.1111/apt.17942. Epub 2024 Mar 6. PMID: 38445780.
Q.
What are some effective strategies to alleviate brain fog?
A.
Taking care of your body and brain through a mix of healthy habits and targeted treatments can help lessen brain fog. Strategies like physical exercise, good sleep, brain training, and advanced treatments such as neurofeedback and non-invasive brain stimulation have shown promise.
References:
Krishnan K, Lin Y, Prewitt KM, Potter DA. Multidisciplinary Approach to Brain Fog and Related Persisting Symptoms Post COVID-19. J Health Serv Psychol. 2022;48(1):31-38. doi: 10.1007/s42843-022-00056-7. Epub 2022 Feb 2. PMID: 35128461; PMCID: PMC8809226.
Masuko T, Sasai-Masuko H. Efficacy of Original Neurofeedback Treatment Method for Brain Fog From COVID-19: A Case Report. Cureus. 2024 Mar 20;16(3):e56519. doi: 10.7759/cureus.56519. PMID: 38646408; PMCID: PMC11026996.
Linnhoff S, Koehler L, Haghikia A, Zaehle T. The therapeutic potential of non-invasive brain stimulation for the treatment of Long-COVID-related cognitive fatigue. Front Immunol. 2023 Jan 9;13:935614. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.935614. PMID: 36700201; PMCID: PMC9869163.
Q.
What are the causes of the brain's inability to process information?
A.
The brain’s inability to process information can be caused by injuries, illnesses, or problems like stress or poor sleep that affect how brain cells work.
References:
Updated 2023 Feb 14]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-. Available from: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559052/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559052/
Eugene AR, Masiak J. The Neuroprotective Aspects of Sleep. MEDtube Sci. 2015 Mar;3(1):35-40. PMID: 26594659; PMCID: PMC4651462.
Updated 2023 Mar 17]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-. Available from: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551718/
Q.
What are the common symptoms associated with brain fog?
A.
Brain fog is when someone has trouble thinking clearly, remembering things, or staying focused. It can feel like your brain is moving slowly or like it’s wrapped in a thick cloud.
References:
Aghajani Mir M. Brain Fog: a Narrative Review of the Most Common Mysterious Cognitive Disorder in COVID-19. Mol Neurobiol. 2024 Dec;61(12):9915-9926. doi: 10.1007/s12035-023-03715-y. Epub 2023 Oct 24. PMID: 37874482.
Alim-Marvasti A, Ciocca M, Kuleindiren N, Lin A, Selim H, Mahmud M. Subjective brain fog: a four-dimensional characterization in 25,796 participants. Front Hum Neurosci. 2024 Jun 6;18:1409250. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1409250. PMID: 38911226; PMCID: PMC11191638.
Jennings G, Monaghan A, Xue F, Duggan E, Romero-Ortuño R. Comprehensive Clinical Characterisation of Brain Fog in Adults Reporting Long COVID Symptoms. J Clin Med. 2022 Jun 15;11(12):3440. doi: 10.3390/jcm11123440. PMID: 35743516; PMCID: PMC9224578.
Q.
What are the potential causes of brain fog?
A.
Brain fog can come from many issues like stress, fatigue, infections and lack of sleep.
References:
Aghajani Mir M. Brain Fog: a Narrative Review of the Most Common Mysterious Cognitive Disorder in COVID-19. Mol Neurobiol. 2024 Dec;61(12):9915-9926. doi: 10.1007/s12035-023-03715-y. Epub 2023 Oct 24. PMID: 37874482.
Rosenberg R, Thorpy MJ, Doghramji K, Morse AM. Brain fog in central disorders of hypersomnolence: a review. J Clin Sleep Med. 2024 Apr 1;20(4):643-651. doi: 10.5664/jcsm.11014. PMID: 38217475; PMCID: PMC10985301.
Delgado-Alonso C, Díez-Cirarda M, Pagán J, Pérez-Izquierdo C, Oliver-Mas S, Fernández-Romero L, Martínez-Petit Á, Valles-Salgado M, Gil-Moreno MJ, Yus M, Matías-Guiu J, Ayala JL, Matias-Guiu JA. Unraveling brain fog in post-COVID syndrome: Relationship between subjective cognitive complaints and cognitive function, fatigue, and neuropsychiatric symptoms. Eur J Neurol. 2025 Jan;32(1):e16084. doi: 10.1111/ene.16084. Epub 2023 Oct 5. PMID: 37797297; PMCID: PMC11618112.
Q.
What can I do if I feel like my brain isn't processing anything?
A.
Feeling like your brain isn't processing well can be a sign of mental fatigue or burnout. Simple changes in your routine and self-care tips may help clear the fog.
References:
Leddy M. Thriving, Not Just Surviving: Recognizing Burnout and Simple Tips to Start Feeling Better. J Adv Pract Oncol. 2022 Apr;13(3):209-212. doi: 10.6004/jadpro.2022.13.3.5. Epub 2022 May 23. PMID: 35663184; PMCID: PMC9126333.
Sukel K. Lifting the fog. New Sci. 2022 Jun 11;254(3390):38-41. doi: 10.1016/S0262-4079(22)01024-7. Epub 2022 Jun 10. PMID: 35722453; PMCID: PMC9187342.
Tamir T. Working with my brain and not against it. Elife. 2023 Dec 11;12:e95068. doi: 10.7554/eLife.95068. PMID: 38078448; PMCID: PMC10712947.
Q.
What conditions might cause my brain to struggle with processing information?
A.
The most common cause of difficulty with mental processing is stress, which decreases the amount of energy given to the brain for its basic function. Some medical issues like ADHD, dementia, brain injuries, and mental health conditions can also make it hard for your brain to process information.
References:
Updated 2023 Feb 14]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-. Available from: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559052/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559052/
Wang Y, Pan Y, Li H. What is brain health and why is it important? BMJ. 2020 Oct 9;371:m3683. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m3683. PMID: 33037002; PMCID: PMC7555053.
Kibby MY, Vadnais SA, Jagger-Rickels AC. Which components of processing speed are affected in ADHD subtypes? Child Neuropsychol. 2019 Oct;25(7):964-979. doi: 10.1080/09297049.2018.1556625. Epub 2018 Dec 18. PMID: 30558479; PMCID: PMC6581645.
Q.
What could cause a head to feel foggy and dizzy simultaneously?
A.
A foggy head and feeling dizzy at the same time can be caused by problems with the body's balance and brain function. Conditions like postural tachycardia syndrome, concussion, and vestibular migraine can all lead to these symptoms.
References:
Rodriguez B, Hochstrasser A, Eugster PJ, Grouzmann E, Müri RM, Z'Graggen WJ. Brain fog in neuropathic postural tachycardia syndrome may be associated with autonomic hyperarousal and improves after water drinking. Front Neurosci. 2022 Aug 5;16:968725. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2022.968725. Erratum in: Front Neurosci. 2023 Mar 14;17:1178850. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1178850. PMID: 35992935; PMCID: PMC9388780.
Danielli E, Simard N, DeMatteo CA, Kumbhare D, Ulmer S, Noseworthy MD. A review of brain regions and associated post-concussion symptoms. Front Neurol. 2023 Aug 3;14:1136367. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1136367. PMID: 37602240; PMCID: PMC10435092.
Beh SC, Abouzari M, Bassett AM, Buskirk J, Ceriani CEJ, Crowson MG, Djalilian H, Goebel JA, Kuhn JJ, Luebke AE, Mandalà M, Nowaczewska M, Spare N, Teggi R, Versino M, Yuan H, Zaleski-King A, Teixido M, Godley F. Care Gaps and Recommendations in Vestibular Migraine: An Expert Panel Summit. Front Neurol. 2022 Jan 3;12:812678. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2021.812678. PMID: 35046886; PMCID: PMC8762211.
Q.
What does it mean if your brain does not process information correctly?
A.
When your brain does not process information correctly, it means the brain is having trouble taking in, storing, or using what it learns. This may cause problems with memory, decision-making, and everyday thinking.
References:
Budson AE. Understanding memory dysfunction. Neurologist. 2009 Mar;15(2):71-9. doi: 10.1097/NRL.0b013e318188040d. PMID: 19276784; PMCID: PMC8170590.
Ackerman S. Discovering the Brain. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1992. 8, Learning, Recalling, and Thinking.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234153/
InformedHealth.org](http://informedhealth.org/) [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. In brief: How does the brain work? [Updated 2021 Sep 29]. Available from: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279302/
Q.
What factors might be causing my persistent brain fog?
A.
Your persistent brain fog could be linked to chronic pain, thyroid issues, and lifestyle factors like poor sleep, stress, diet, and gut health.
References:
Dass R, Kalia M, Harris J, Packham T. Understanding the Experience and Impacts of Brain Fog in Chronic Pain: A Scoping Review. Can J Pain. 2023 Jul 10;7(1):2217865. doi: 10.1080/24740527.2023.2217865. PMID: 37441085; PMCID: PMC10334862
Altinsoy C, Dikmen D. How Are Brain Fog Symptoms Related to Diet, Sleep, Mood and Gastrointestinal Health? A Cross-Sectional Study. Medicina (Kaunas). 2025 Feb 15;61(2):344. doi: 10.3390/medicina61020344. PMID: 40005460; PMCID: PMC11857395.
Samuels MH, Bernstein LJ. Brain Fog in Hypothyroidism: What Is It, How Is It Measured, and What Can Be Done About It. Thyroid. 2022 Jul;32(7):752-763. doi: 10.1089/thy.2022.0139. Epub 2022 May 5. PMID: 35414261; PMCID: PMC9469742.
Q.
What is the medical definition of brain fog?
A.
Brain fog is a way to describe feeling like your thoughts are slow or unclear. It means having trouble with concentration, memory, and clear thinking.
References:
McWhirter L, Smyth H, Hoeritzauer I, Couturier A, Stone J, Carson AJ. What is brain fog? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2023 Apr;94(4):321-325. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2022-329683. Epub 2022 Dec 6. PMID: 36600580.
Denno P, Zhao S, Husain M, Hampshire A. Defining brain fog across medical conditions. Trends Neurosci. 2025 Feb 17:S0166-2236(25)00017-7. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2025.01.003. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 40011078.
McWhirter L. Brain fog. Pract Neurol. 2025 Mar 14;25(2):137-142. doi: 10.1136/pn-2024-004112. PMID: 39304293.
Q.
What is the medical term for a foggy brain?
A.
"Brain fog" is the common medical term used for a foggy brain. It describes feelings of confusion, memory lapses, or a lack of clear thinking even though it is not a formal diagnosis.
References:
McWhirter L. Brain fog. Pract Neurol. 2025 Mar 14;25(2):137-142. doi: 10.1136/pn-2024-004112. PMID: 39304293.
Denno P, Zhao S, Husain M, Hampshire A. Defining brain fog across medical conditions. Trends Neurosci. 2025 Feb 17:S0166-2236(25)00017-7. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2025.01.003. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 40011078.
McWhirter L, Smyth H, Hoeritzauer I, Couturier A, Stone J, Carson AJ. What is brain fog? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2023 Apr;94(4):321-325. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2022-329683. Epub 2022 Dec 6. PMID: 36600580.
Q.
What might cause a persistent foggy head feeling?
A.
Many things can make your head feel foggy, like long-lasting pain, slow thyroid function, or lingering effects after an illness such as COVID-19.
References:
Dass R, Kalia M, Harris J, Packham T. Understanding the Experience and Impacts of Brain Fog in Chronic Pain: A Scoping Review. Can J Pain. 2023 Jul 10;7(1):2217865. doi: 10.1080/24740527.2023.2217865. PMID: 37441085; PMCID: PMC10334862.
Samuels MH, Bernstein LJ. Brain Fog in Hypothyroidism: What Is It, How Is It Measured, and What Can Be Done About It. Thyroid. 2022 Jul;32(7):752-763. doi: 10.1089/thy.2022.0139. Epub 2022 May 5. PMID: 35414261; PMCID: PMC9469742.
Krishnan K, Lin Y, Prewitt KM, Potter DA. Multidisciplinary Approach to Brain Fog and Related Persisting Symptoms Post COVID-19. J Health Serv Psychol. 2022;48(1):31-38. doi: 10.1007/s42843-022-00056-7. Epub 2022 Feb 2. PMID: 35128461; PMCID: PMC8809226.
Q.
What personal strategies have people used to cure their brain fog?
A.
Many individuals try simple habits like regular and sufficient rest, mindful meditation, and setting routines to help ease brain fog symptoms.
References:
Callan C, Ladds E, Husain L, Pattinson K, Greenhalgh T. 'I can't cope with multiple inputs': a qualitative study of the lived experience of 'brain fog' after COVID-19. BMJ Open. 2022 Feb 11;12(2):e056366. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056366. PMID: 35149572; PMCID: PMC8844964.
Gorenshtein A, Liba T, Leibovitch L, Stern S, Stern Y. Intervention modalities for brain fog caused by long-COVID: systematic review of the literature. Neurol Sci. 2024 Jul;45(7):2951-2968. doi: 10.1007/s10072-024-07566-w. Epub 2024 May 2. PMID: 38695969; PMCID: PMC11176231.
Hausswirth C, Schmit C, Rougier Y, Coste A. Positive Impacts of a Four-Week Neuro-Meditation Program on Cognitive Function in Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023 Jan 11;20(2):1361. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20021361. PMID: 36674117; PMCID: PMC9858974.
Q.
What should I do if my brain can't process information as it used to?
A.
If you notice your brain isn’t processing information like before, it’s important to talk to a doctor so they can help find out why and suggest ways to improve your thinking.
References:
Updated 2024 Jun 8]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-. Available from: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545136/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545136/
Updated 2023 May 1]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-. Available from: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557811/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557811/
Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health (US); 2007. Information about Mental Illness and the Brain. Available from: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20369/
Q.
What steps can I take if my brain is not processing information well?
A.
Taking care of your body with enough sleep, exercise, and a healthy diet, along with practicing mental exercises and stress reduction techniques, can help improve your brain's processing and learning abilities.
References:
Mintzer J, Donovan KA, Kindy AZ, Lock SL, Chura LR, Barracca N. Lifestyle Choices and Brain Health. Front Med (Lausanne). 2019 Oct 4;6:204. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2019.00204. PMID: 31637242; PMCID: PMC6787147.
van Kesteren MTR, Meeter M. How to optimize knowledge construction in the brain. NPJ Sci Learn. 2020 May 1;5:5. doi: 10.1038/s41539-020-0064-y. PMID: 32655882; PMCID: PMC7339924.
Castillo M. Boosting your brain, part 2: the hard way. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2013 May;34(5):917-8. doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A3229. Epub 2012 Jul 12. PMID: 22790247; PMCID: PMC7964647.
Q.
What treatments are available for managing brain fog?
A.
Treatments for brain fog generally focus on a mix of cognitive rehabilitation, lifestyle changes, and supportive therapies that aim to improve overall brain function and well-being. Researchers suggest that a multi-pronged approach can help manage symptoms, especially when brain fog is related to long-COVID or other underlying conditions.
References:
Gorenshtein A, Liba T, Leibovitch L, Stern S, Stern Y. Intervention modalities for brain fog caused by long-COVID: systematic review of the literature. Neurol Sci. 2024 Jul;45(7):2951-2968. doi: 10.1007/s10072-024-07566-w. Epub 2024 May 2. PMID: 38695969; PMCID: PMC11176231.
Kverno K. Brain Fog: A Bit of Clarity Regarding Etiology, Prognosis, and Treatment. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 2021 Nov;59(11):9-13. doi: 10.3928/02793695-20211013-01. Epub 2021 Nov 1. PMID: 34714198.
Gorenshtein A, Liba T, Leibovitch L, Stern S, Stern Y. Intervention modalities for brain fog caused by long-COVID: systematic review of the literature. Neurol Sci. 2024 Jul;45(7):2951-2968. doi: 10.1007/s10072-024-07566-w. Epub 2024 May 2. PMID: 38695969; PMCID: PMC11176231.
Q.
What treatments can help alleviate a foggy brain?
A.
Treating a foggy brain can include a mix of therapies like cognitive exercises, physical activity, good sleep habits, and sometimes medication or therapy through a team of experts.
References:
Sukel K. Lifting the fog. New Sci. 2022 Jun 11;254(3390):38-41. doi: 10.1016/S0262-4079(22)01024-7. Epub 2022 Jun 10. PMID: 35722453; PMCID: PMC9187342.
Krishnan K, Lin Y, Prewitt KM, Potter DA. Multidisciplinary Approach to Brain Fog and Related Persisting Symptoms Post COVID-19. J Health Serv Psychol. 2022;48(1):31-38. doi: 10.1007/s42843-022-00056-7. Epub 2022 Feb 2. PMID: 35128461; PMCID: PMC8809226.
Gorenshtein A, Liba T, Leibovitch L, Stern S, Stern Y. Intervention modalities for brain fog caused by long-COVID: systematic review of the literature. Neurol Sci. 2024 Jul;45(7):2951-2968. doi: 10.1007/s10072-024-07566-w. Epub 2024 May 2. PMID: 38695969; PMCID: PMC11176231.
Q.
What underlying issues could make my brain feel foggy?
A.
Brain fog can be linked to several issues like chronic pain, fatigue, stress, sleep problems, and even changes in our body’s hormonal or inflammatory responses. These issues can work together to make it harder for your brain to stay sharp.
References:
Dass R, Kalia M, Harris J, Packham T. Understanding the Experience and Impacts of Brain Fog in Chronic Pain: A Scoping Review. Can J Pain. 2023 Jul 10;7(1):2217865. doi: 10.1080/24740527.2023.2217865. PMID: 37441085; PMCID: PMC10334862.
Elliott TR, Hsiao YY, Randolph K, Urban RJ, Sheffield-Moore M, Pyles RB, Masel BE, Wexler T, Wright TJ. Efficient assessment of brain fog and fatigue: Development of the Fatigue and Altered Cognition Scale (FACs). PLoS One. 2023 Dec 11;18(12):e0295593. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0295593. PMID: 38079429; PMCID: PMC10712873.
Sukel K. Lifting the fog. New Sci. 2022 Jun 11;254(3390):38-41. doi: 10.1016/S0262-4079(22)01024-7. Epub 2022 Jun 10. PMID: 35722453; PMCID: PMC9187342.
Q.
What would prevent my brain from processing information efficiently?
A.
Many things like too much screen time, stress, not enough sleep, and memory challenges can make it difficult for the brain to process information well.
References:
Ackerman S. Discovering the Brain. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1992. 8, Learning, Recalling, and Thinking.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234153/
Small GW, Lee J, Kaufman A, Jalil J, Siddarth P, Gaddipati H, Moody TD, Bookheimer SY. Brain health consequences of digital technology use. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2020 Jun;22(2):179-187. doi: 10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.2/gsmall. PMID: 32699518; PMCID: PMC7366948.
Firth J, Torous J, Stubbs B, Firth JA, Steiner GZ, Smith L, Alvarez-Jimenez M, Gleeson J, Vancampfort D, Armitage CJ, Sarris J. The "online brain": how the Internet may be changing our cognition. World Psychiatry. 2019 Jun;18(2):119-129. doi: 10.1002/wps.20617. PMID: 31059635; PMCID: PMC6502424.
Q.
When does brain fog typically start in COVID-19 patients?
A.
Brain fog in COVID-19 patients often starts during the early recovery phase from the virus—usually a few weeks after symptoms begin—and may persist for months in some cases.
References:
Sia AL, Neo JE, Jen-Wei Tan B, Tan EK. "Brain fog" and COVID-19. Am J Med Sci. 2023 May;365(5):472-474. doi: 10.1016/j.amjms.2023.01.003. Epub 2023 Jan 9. PMID: 36632867; PMCID: PMC9827745.
Chasco EE, Dukes K, Jones D, Comellas AP, Hoffman RM, Garg A. Brain Fog and Fatigue following COVID-19 Infection: An Exploratory Study of Patient Experiences of Long COVID. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Nov 23;19(23):15499. doi: 10.3390/ijerph192315499. PMID: 36497573; PMCID: PMC9737348.
Cristillo V, Pilotto A, Piccinelli SC, Gipponi S, Leonardi M, Bezzi M, Padovani A. Predictors of "brain fog" 1 year after COVID-19 disease. Neurol Sci. 2022 Oct;43(10):5795-5797. doi: 10.1007/s10072-022-06285-4. Epub 2022 Aug 5. PMID: 35930181; PMCID: PMC9361921
Q.
Why do I experience both a foggy head and headache?
A.
A foggy head and headache can occur together because many conditions affect both your thinking and your head. They might be signs of issues like cluster headaches, thyroid problems, or even effects from a brain injury or infection.
References:
Torkamani M, Ernst L, Cheung LS, Lambru G, Matharu M, Jahanshahi M. The neuropsychology of cluster headache: cognition, mood, disability, and quality of life of patients with chronic and episodic cluster headache. Headache. 2015 Feb;55(2):287-300. doi: 10.1111/head.12486. PMID: 25688646; PMCID: PMC4354253.
Batista SP, McAninch E, Teixeira MCTV, Jonklaas J, Laiteerapong N, Ribeiro MO, Bianco AC. Brain Fog in Hypothyroidism: Understanding the Patient's Perspective. Endocr Pract. 2022 Mar;28(3):257-264. doi: 10.1016/j.eprac.2021.12.003. Epub 2021 Dec 8. PMID: 34890786; PMCID: PMC8901556.
Bell T, Crowe M, Novack T, Davis RD, Stavrinos D. Severity and correlates of brain fog in people with traumatic brain injury. Res Nurs Health. 2023 Feb;46(1):136-147. doi: 10.1002/nur.22280. Epub 2022 Dec 12. PMID: 36504287; PMCID: PMC10851910.
Q.
Why does brain fog occur during pregnancy?
A.
Brain fog during pregnancy can happen because changes in hormones, sleep patterns, and stress levels affect how the brain processes information. These natural shifts help prepare the body for motherhood but can sometimes make thinking slower or fuzzier.
References:
Barda G, Mizrachi Y, Borokchovich I, Yair L, Kertesz DP, Dabby R. The effect of pregnancy on maternal cognition. Sci Rep. 2021 Jun 9;11(1):12187. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-91504-9. PMID: 34108532; PMCID: PMC8190150.
Holland C, Hammond C, Richmond MM. COVID-19 and Pregnancy: Risks and Outcomes. Nurs Womens Health. 2023 Feb;27(1):31-41. doi: 10.1016/j.nwh.2022.11.004. Epub 2022 Dec 14. PMID: 36528073; PMCID: PMC9749909.
Davies SJ, Lum JA, Skouteris H, Byrne LK, Hayden MJ. Cognitive impairment during pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Med J Aust. 2018 Jan 15;208(1):35-40. doi: 10.5694/mja17.00131. PMID: 29320671.
Q.
Why does my head feel both foggy and heavy?
A.
Your head may feel foggy and heavy because your brain isn’t processing things as clearly as usual, which can happen for many reasons like stress, fatigue, or changes in your body’s signals.
References:
Alim-Marvasti A, Ciocca M, Kuleindiren N, Lin A, Selim H, Mahmud M. Subjective brain fog: a four-dimensional characterization in 25,796 participants. Front Hum Neurosci. 2024 Jun 6;18:1409250. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1409250. PMID: 38911226; PMCID: PMC11191638
Ross AJ, Medow MS, Rowe PC, Stewart JM. What is brain fog? An evaluation of the symptom in postural tachycardia syndrome. Clin Auton Res. 2013 Dec;23(6):305-11. doi: 10.1007/s10286-013-0212-z. Epub 2013 Sep 3. PMID: 23999934; PMCID: PMC3896080.
Jennings G, Monaghan A, Xue F, Duggan E, Romero-Ortuño R. Comprehensive Clinical Characterisation of Brain Fog in Adults Reporting Long COVID Symptoms. J Clin Med. 2022 Jun 15;11(12):3440. doi: 10.3390/jcm11123440. PMID: 35743516; PMCID: PMC9224578.
Q.
Why might brain fog be accompanied by dizziness?
A.
Brain fog may come with dizziness because both can be caused by changes in blood flow or problems in the brain and balance systems. Issues with the brain’s blood supply or the inner ear’s balance system can affect how clear your thinking is and make you feel dizzy.
References:
Good DC. Episodic Neurologic Symptoms. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, editors. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition. Boston: Butterworths; 1990. Chapter 51.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK374/
Ross AJ, Medow MS, Rowe PC, Stewart JM. What is brain fog? An evaluation of the symptom in postural tachycardia syndrome. Clin Auton Res. 2013 Dec;23(6):305-11. doi: 10.1007/s10286-013-0212-z. Epub 2013 Sep 3. PMID: 23999934; PMCID: PMC3896080.
Guo J, Wang J, Liang P, Tian E, Liu D, Guo Z, Chen J, Zhang Y, Zhou Z, Kong W, Crans DC, Lu Y, Zhang S. Vestibular dysfunction leads to cognitive impairments: State of knowledge in the field and clinical perspectives (Review). Int J Mol Med. 2024 Apr;53(4):36. doi: 10.3892/ijmm.2024.5360. Epub 2024 Feb 23. PMID: 38391090; PMCID: PMC10914312.
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