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Obesity (overweight) results from a combination of factors such as overeating, insufficient exercise, and genetic factors.
Your doctor may ask these questions to check for this disease:
The goal of treatment is to reach and maintain a healthy weight through a combination of diet changes and increased exercise. In severe cases, a doctor may recommend medication or surgery to assist with weight loss.
Reviewed By:
Scott Nass, MD, MPA, FAAFP, AAHIVS (Primary Care)
Dr. Nass received dual medical degrees from the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and Charles R. Drew University in Medicine and Science. He completed Family Medicine residency at Ventura County Medical Center with subsequent fellowships at Ventura, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, George Washington University, and University of California-Irvine. He holds faculty appointments at Keck School of Medicine of USC, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, and Western University of Health Sciences.
Yoshinori Abe, MD (Internal Medicine)
Dr. Abe graduated from The University of Tokyo School of Medicine in 2015. He completed his residency at the Tokyo Metropolitan Health and Longevity Medical Center. He co-founded Ubie, Inc. in May 2017, where he currently serves as CEO & product owner at Ubie. Since December 2019, he has been a member of the Special Committee for Activation of Research in Emergency AI of the Japanese Association for Acute Medicine. | | Dr. Abe has been elected in the 2020 Forbes 30 Under 30 Asia Healthcare & Science category.
Content updated on Feb 19, 2025
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Q.
Are we eating too much or the wrong foods for obesity?
A.
Eating too much and choosing unhealthy foods are key reasons why people become obese. Marketing unhealthy foods to kids and using artificial additives in food also contribute to obesity.
References:
Kuźbicka K, & Rachoń D. (2013). Bad eating habits as the main cause of obesity among .... Pediatric endocrinology, diabetes, and metabolism, 25577898.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25577898/
Elliott C. (2012). Marketing foods to children: are we asking the right .... Childhood obesity (Print), 22799544.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22799544/
Warner JO. (2024). Artificial food additives: hazardous to long-term health?. Archives of disease in childhood, 38423749.
Q.
Can obesity affect bone health and reproduction?
A.
Obesity can affect bone health and reproduction by influencing bone metabolism and conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It can also impact bone development in children if the mother has a high-fat diet during pregnancy.
References:
Gkastaris K, Goulis DG, Potoupnis M, Anastasilakis AD, & Kapetanos G. (2020). Obesity, osteoporosis and bone metabolism. Journal of musculoskeletal & neuronal interactions, 32877973.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32877973/
Buckels EJ, Bolam SM, Tay ML, & Matthews BG. (2021). The Impact of Maternal High-Fat Diet on Bone .... Frontiers in nutrition, 34527691.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34527691/
Noroozzadeh M, Amiri M, Farhadi-Azar M, & Ramezani Tehrani F. (2022). Bone Health in Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Journal of clinical densitometry : the official journal of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry, 35430131.
Q.
Does diet or physical activity contribute more to obesity?
A.
Both diet and physical activity are important for managing obesity, but combining them is most effective.
References:
Olateju IV, Opaleye-Enakhimion T, Udeogu JE, Asuquo J, Olaleye KT, Osa E, & Oladunjoye AF. (2023). A systematic review on the effectiveness of diet and .... Diabetes & metabolic syndrome, 37084486.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37084486/
Johns DJ, Hartmann-Boyce J, Jebb SA, Aveyard P, & Behavioural Weight Management Review Group. (2014). Diet or exercise interventions vs combined behavioral .... Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 25257365.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25257365/
Wu T, Gao X, Chen M, & van Dam RM. (2009). Long-term effectiveness of diet-plus-exercise interventions .... Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 19175510.
Q.
Does more exercise significantly reduce obesity?
A.
Exercise can help reduce obesity, but it works best when combined with other lifestyle changes like diet.
References:
Oppert JM, Ciangura C, & Bellicha A. (2023). Physical activity and exercise for weight loss and .... Reviews in endocrine & metabolic disorders, 37142892.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37142892/
Petridou A, Siopi A, & Mougios V. (2019). Exercise in the management of obesity. Metabolism: clinical and experimental, 30385379.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385379/
Bellicha A, van Baak MA, Battista F, Beaulieu K, Blundell JE, Busetto L, et al. (2021). Effect of exercise training on weight loss, body composition .... Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 33955140.
Q.
How can individuals prevent obesity?
A.
To prevent obesity, individuals should focus on healthy eating and regular physical activity.
References:
Wadden TA, Tronieri JS, & Butryn ML. (2020). Lifestyle modification approaches for the treatment of .... The American psychologist, 32052997.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32052997/
Romon M. (2010). [Obesity prevention, how?]. Presse medicale (Paris, France : 1983), 20621435.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20621435/
Hilbert A, Ried J, Schneider D, Juttner C, Sosna M, Dabrock P, et al. (2007). [Primary prevention of adult obesity. an interdisciplinary .... Herz, 17972027.
Q.
How common is obesity worldwide?
A.
Obesity is a common health issue worldwide, affecting a large number of people in many countries.
References:
Sørensen TIA, Martinez AR, & Jørgensen TSH. (2022). Epidemiology of Obesity. Handbook of experimental pharmacology, 35419622.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35419622/
NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC). (2024). Worldwide trends in underweight and obesity from 1990 to .... Lancet (London, England), 38432237.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38432237/
Chooi YC, Ding C, & Magkos F. (2019). The epidemiology of obesity. Metabolism: clinical and experimental, 30253139.
Q.
How do ultra-processed foods contribute to weight gain?
A.
Ultra-processed foods can lead to weight gain because they make you eat more calories than you need and can cause obesity over time.
References:
Cordova R, Kliemann N, Huybrechts I, Rauber F, Vamos EP, Levy RB, et al. (2021). Consumption of ultra-processed foods associated with .... Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland), 34455267.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34455267/
Hall KD, Ayuketah A, Brychta R, Cai H, Cassimatis T, Chen KY, et al. (2019). Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and .... Cell metabolism, 31105044.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31105044/
Harb AA, Shechter A, Koch PA, & St-Onge MP. (2023). Ultra-processed foods and the development of obesity in .... European journal of clinical nutrition, 36280730.
Q.
How does a sedentary lifestyle relate to obesity according to new research?
A.
New research shows that sitting too much can lead to obesity, as it often means less exercise and more weight gain, especially around the belly.
References:
Bora N, K V, Verma A, Bharti AK, & Sinha MK. (2024). Physical activity and sedentary behavior perceptions in .... F1000Research, 39131836.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39131836/
Chen S, Yang L, Yang Y, Shi W, Stults-Kolehmainen M, Yuan Q, et al. (2024). Sedentary behavior, physical activity, sleep duration and .... PloS one, 38457382.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38457382/
Silveira EA, Mendonça CR, Delpino FM, Elias Souza GV, Pereira de Souza Rosa L, de Oliveira C, & Noll M. (2022). Sedentary behavior, physical inactivity, abdominal obesity .... Clinical nutrition ESPEN, 35871953.
Q.
How does childhood obesity impact adult health?
A.
Childhood obesity can lead to serious health problems in adulthood, including heart disease, diabetes, and increased risk of dying early.
References:
Kelsey MM, Zaepfel A, Bjornstad P, & Nadeau KJ. (2014). Age-related consequences of childhood obesity. Gerontology, 24434909.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24434909/
Dietz WH. (1998). Childhood weight affects adult morbidity and mortality. The Journal of nutrition, 9478038.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9478038/
Llewellyn A, Simmonds M, Owen CG, & Woolacott N. (2016). Childhood obesity as a predictor of morbidity in adulthood. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 26440472.
Q.
How has the modern food supply influenced obesity rates?
A.
The modern food supply, especially the rise of ultra-processed foods, has significantly contributed to increasing obesity rates by making unhealthy foods more accessible and appealing.
References:
Khonje MG, Ecker O, & Qaim M. (2020). Effects of Modern Food Retailers on Adult and Child Diets .... Nutrients, 32521620.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32521620/
Harb AA, Shechter A, Koch PA, & St-Onge MP. (2023). Ultra-processed foods and the development of obesity in .... European journal of clinical nutrition, 36280730.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36280730/
Monteiro CA, Moubarac JC, Cannon G, Ng SW, & Popkin B. (2013). Ultra-processed products are becoming dominant in the .... Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 24102801.
Q.
How is obesity diagnosed using BMI?
A.
Obesity is diagnosed using BMI by calculating a person's weight and height, with a BMI of 30 or higher indicating obesity.
References:
Romero-Corral A, Somers VK, Sierra-Johnson J, Thomas RJ, Collazo-Clavell ML, Korinek J, et al. (2008). Accuracy of body mass index in diagnosing obesity in the .... International journal of obesity (2005), 18283284.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18283284/
Orzano AJ, & Scott JG. (2004). Diagnosis and treatment of obesity in adults. The Journal of the American Board of Family Practice, 15355950.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15355950/
Batsis JA, Mackenzie TA, Bartels SJ, Sahakyan KR, Somers VK, & Lopez-Jimenez F. (2016). Diagnostic accuracy of body mass index to identify obesity .... International journal of obesity (2005), 26620887.
Q.
Is calorie expenditure the main factor in obesity prevention?
A.
Calorie expenditure is important in preventing obesity, but it's not the only factor; balancing calories consumed with calories burned is key.
References:
Hill JO, Wyatt HR, & Peters JC. (2012). Energy balance and obesity. Circulation, 22753534.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22753534/
Dulloo AG, Miles-Chan J, Schutz Y, & Montani JP. (2018). Targeting lifestyle energy expenditure in the management .... Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 30511502.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30511502/
Hill JO, Wyatt HR, & Peters JC. (2013). The Importance of Energy Balance. European endocrinology, 29922364.
Q.
Is exercise still important for health if not for obesity?
A.
Exercise is important for health beyond just managing weight; it helps your heart, bones, and mood.
References:
Brukner PD, & Brown WJ. (2005). 3. Is exercise good for you?. The Medical journal of Australia, 16296971.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16296971/
Blair SN, Kohl HW, Gordon NF, & Paffenbarger RS Jr. (1992). How much physical activity is good for health?. Annual review of public health, 1599603.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1599603/
Warburton DE, Nicol CW, & Bredin SS. (2006). Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne, 16534088.
Q.
Is it true you can't outrun a bad diet?
A.
You can't out-exercise a bad diet because eating healthy is important for overall well-being, even if you are active.
References:
Kamel Boulos MN, & Yang SP. (2021). Mobile physical activity planning and tracking: a brief .... mHealth, 7882264.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7882264/
Wanjohi MN, Pradeilles R, Asiki G, Holdsworth M, Kimani-Murage EW, Muthuri SK, et al. (2022). Community perceptions on the factors in the social food .... Public Health Nutrition, 9989710.
Q.
Is lack of exercise the main cause of obesity?
A.
Lack of exercise is a significant factor in obesity, but it is not the only cause. Obesity results from a combination of factors, including diet, genetics, and lifestyle.
References:
Jebb SA, & Moore MS. (1999). Contribution of a sedentary lifestyle and inactivity to the .... Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 10593524.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10593524/
Lakka TA, & Bouchard C. (2005). Physical activity, obesity and cardiovascular diseases. Handbook of experimental pharmacology, 16596798.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16596798/
Masood B, & Moorthy M. (2023). Causes of obesity: a review. Clinical medicine (London, England), 37524429.
Q.
What are common misunderstandings about obesity causes?
A.
Common misunderstandings about obesity include blaming it solely on high-fructose corn syrup and not recognizing the complex factors involved, such as genetics and metabolism.
References:
White JS. (2009). Misconceptions about high-fructose corn syrup. The Journal of nutrition, 19386820.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19386820/
Lesser LI, Mazza MC, & Lucan SC. (2015). Nutrition myths and healthy dietary advice in clinical practice. American family physician, 25955738.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25955738/
Schultes B, Ernst B, Hallschmid M, Bueter M, & Meyhöfer SM. (2023). A new perspective on the aetiology and therapy of obesity. Diabetes, obesity & metabolism, 37694802.
Q.
What are industrial formulations of five or more ingredients?
A.
Industrial formulations with five or more ingredients are often called ultra-processed foods, which are made using many additives and processes to enhance flavor and shelf life.
References:
Monteiro CA, Cannon G, Levy RB, Moubarac JC, Louzada ML, Rauber F, et al. (2019). Ultra-processed foods: what they are and how to identify .... Public health nutrition, 30744710.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30744710/
Gibney MJ. (2019). Ultra-Processed Foods: Definitions and Policy Issues. Current developments in nutrition, 30820487.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30820487/
Medin AC, Gulowsen SR, Groufh-Jacobsen S, Berget I, Grini IS, & Varela P. (2025). Definitions of ultra-processed foods beyond NOVA. Food & nutrition research, 40655201.
Q.
What are the health risks associated with obesity?
A.
Obesity can lead to serious health problems like heart disease, diabetes, and high blood pressure.
References:
Pi-Sunyer FX. (1991). Health implications of obesity. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2031492.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2031492/
Bray GA. (2004). Medical consequences of obesity. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 15181027.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15181027/
Pi-Sunyer X. (2009). The medical risks of obesity. Postgraduate medicine, 19940414.
Q.
What are the main causes of overweight and obesity?
A.
Overweight and obesity are mainly caused by eating too much and not moving enough, but genetics and other factors can also play a role.
References:
Wright SM, & Aronne LJ. (2012). Causes of obesity. Abdominal imaging, 22426851.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22426851/
Kuźbicka K, & Rachoń D. (2013). Bad eating habits as the main cause of obesity among .... Pediatric endocrinology, diabetes, and metabolism, 25577898.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25577898/
(2000). Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. .... World Health Organization technical report series, 11234459.
Q.
What are the non-weight related health benefits of exercise?
A.
Exercise helps improve your heart health, makes your muscles stronger, and can even make you feel happier.
References:
Oppert JM, Ciangura C, & Bellicha A. (2025). the need to (seriously) go beyond weight loss. International journal of obesity (2005), 39271931.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39271931/
Westcott WL. (2012). Resistance training is medicine: effects of strength .... Current sports medicine reports, 22777332.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22777332/
Braggio M, Dorelli G, Olivato N, Lamberti V, Valenti MT, Dalle Carbonare L, & Cominacini M. (2025). Tailored Exercise Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome. Nutrients, 40077741.
Q.
What aspects of the modern diet contribute to obesity?
A.
Modern diets, especially those with lots of processed foods and sugary drinks, make it easier for people to gain weight and become obese.
References:
Khonje MG, Ecker O, & Qaim M. (2020). Effects of Modern Food Retailers on Adult and Child Diets .... Nutrients, 32521620.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32521620/
Ludwig DS, Aronne LJ, Astrup A, de Cabo R, Cantley LC, Friedman MI, et al. (2021). a physiological perspective on the obesity pandemic. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 34515299.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34515299/
Kendig MD, Leigh SJ, & Morris MJ. (2021). Unravelling the impacts of western-style diets on brain, gut .... Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 34153343.
Q.
What does new research say about the cause of obesity?
A.
New research shows that obesity is influenced by social factors, childhood weight, and various risk factors.
References:
Javed Z, Valero-Elizondo J, Maqsood MH, Mahajan S, Taha MB, Patel KV, et al. (2022). Social determinants of health and obesity: Findings from a .... Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.), 35088551.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35088551/
Simmonds M, Llewellyn A, Owen CG, & Woolacott N. (2016). Predicting adult obesity from childhood obesity. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 26696565.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26696565/
Vuong K, Kabir A, Conway DP, Williamson M, Harris MF, & Barr ML. (2024). Identifying risk factors for developing obesity. Family practice, 38478922.
Q.
What is an obesogenic environment?
A.
An obesogenic environment is a place that makes it easy to gain weight by having lots of unhealthy food and not many ways to be active.
References:
Lake A, & Townshend T. (2006). Obesogenic environments: exploring the built and food .... The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 17152319.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17152319/
Swinburn B, Egger G, & Raza F. (1999). Dissecting obesogenic environments: the development .... Preventive medicine, 10600438.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10600438/
Mattes R, & Foster GD. (2014). Food environment and obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.), 25401929.
Q.
What is the difference between being overweight and obese?
A.
Being overweight and obese both mean having more body fat than is healthy, but obesity is more severe than being overweight.
References:
Potter AW, Chin GC, Looney DP, & Friedl KE. (2025). Defining Overweight and Obesity by Percent Body Fat .... The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 38747476.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38747476/
Bray GA. (1987). Overweight is risking fate. Definition, classification, .... Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 3300479.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3300479/
Aronne LJ. (2002). Classification of obesity and assessment of obesity-related .... Obesity research, 12490659.
Q.
What is the medical definition of obesity?
A.
Obesity is a medical condition where a person has too much body fat, which can lead to health problems.
References:
Apovian CM. (2016). Obesity: definition, comorbidities, causes, and burden. The American journal of managed care, 27356115.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27356115/
Rubino F, Cummings DE, Eckel RH, Cohen RV, Wilding JPH, Brown WA, et al. (2025). Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity. The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology, 39824205.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39824205/
Pi-Sunyer FX. (2000). Obesity: criteria and classification. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 11115784.
Q.
What is the most potent cause of obesity according to new studies?
A.
New studies suggest that inflammation in fat tissue and exposure to chemical toxins are significant causes of obesity.
References:
Aruwa CE, & Sabiu S. (2024). Adipose tissue inflammation linked to obesity: A review .... Heliyon, 38163110.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38163110/
Sørensen TIA, Martinez AR, & Jørgensen TSH. (2022). Epidemiology of Obesity. Handbook of experimental pharmacology, 35419622.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35419622/
Baillie-Hamilton PF. (2002). Chemical toxins: a hypothesis to explain the global obesity .... Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 12006126.
Q.
What is the role of ultra-processed foods in obesity?
A.
Ultra-processed foods are linked to obesity because they often contain high amounts of sugar, fat, and salt, which can lead to overeating.
References:
Shim JS. (2025). Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Obesity. Journal of obesity & metabolic syndrome, 39820152.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39820152/
Mambrini SP, Menichetti F, Ravella S, Pellizzari M, De Amicis R, Foppiani A, et al. (2023). Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Incidence .... Nutrients, 37299546.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37299546/
Harb AA, Shechter A, Koch PA, & St-Onge MP. (2023). Ultra-processed foods and the development of obesity in .... European journal of clinical nutrition, 36280730.
Q.
What lifestyle factors explain the difference in obesity rates between populations?
A.
Differences in obesity rates among populations are influenced by lifestyle factors like where people live (rural vs. urban), their race or ethnicity, and other health habits.
References:
Kenney MK, Wang J, & Iannotti R. (2014). Residency and racial/ethnic differences in weight status .... The Journal of rural health : official journal of the American Rural Health Association and the National Rural Health Care Association, 24383488.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24383488/
Gaskell C, Sarada P, Aleem E, & Bendriss G. (2023). Identifying lifestyle factors associated to co-morbidity .... Frontiers in public health, 37206863.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37206863/
Ismailov RM, & Leatherdale ST. (2010). Rural-urban differences in overweight and obesity among .... International journal of pediatric obesity : IJPO : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 20053147.
Q.
What public health approach is recommended to address obesity?
A.
To tackle obesity, public health approaches focus on community-wide strategies, including promoting healthier eating, increasing physical activity, and implementing supportive policies.
References:
Taheem R, Woods-Townsend K, Lawrence W, Baird J, Godfrey KM, & Hanson M. (2023). How do local authority plans to tackle obesity reflect .... Perspectives in public health, 35796525.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35796525/
Mehta NK. (2023). Obesity as a Main Threat to Future Improvements in .... The Milbank quarterly, 37096602.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37096602/
Nestle M, & Jacobson MF. (2000). Halting the obesity epidemic: a public health policy approach. Public health reports (Washington, D.C. : 1974), 10968581.
Q.
Why is diet considered the key culprit in the obesity epidemic?
A.
Diet is a key reason for the obesity epidemic because people eat more high-calorie foods, like fast food, which makes them gain weight easily.
References:
Meldrum DR, Morris MA, & Gambone JC. (2017). Obesity pandemic: causes, consequences, and solutions .... Fertility and sterility, 28292617.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28292617/
Prentice AM, & Jebb SA. (2003). Fast foods, energy density and obesity: a possible .... Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 14649369.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14649369/
Crino M, Sacks G, Vandevijvere S, Swinburn B, & Neal B. (2015). The Influence on Population Weight Gain and Obesity .... Current obesity reports, 26627085.
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33882682/Wang Y, Beydoun MA (2007). The obesity epidemic in the United States--gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Epidemiologic reviews.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17510091/Apovian CM (2016). Obesity: definition, comorbidities, causes, and burden. The American journal of managed care.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27356115/